Ussama Makdisi, expert on the late Ottoman Empire's Arab culture of coexistence, discusses the impact of European colonialism and Zionism on sectarianism in the region. Topics include missionary movements, the decline of the Ottoman Empire, European intervention, post-Ottoman mandate states, colonial Zionism, and the making of the modern world.
The late Ottoman Empire fostered a culture of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish coexistence, disrupted by European colonialism and Zionism.
The emergence of national identities after the Ottoman Empire breakup neglected the interconnectedness of different regions.
Turkey, after the Ottoman Empire collapse, became a secular state that suppressed and excluded its Christian populations.
European colonial powers divided the Arab East, imposing separate national identities and fulfilling colonial interests.
Deep dives
The Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire have a history of ambitious cosmopolitanism
The Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire have a history of ambitious cosmopolitanism, aiming to create a society that encompasses Muslim, Christian, and Jewish communities. However, this experiment has faced continuous assault from Western imperialism, which has exacerbated sectarianism and hindered the development of religious coexistence in the Middle East.
The period of Tanzimat brought political and military reforms in the Ottoman Empire
In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire initiated political and military reforms known as Tanzimat. During this period, an Arab enlightenment called the Nada emerged, reconceptualizing Arab identity as encompassing Muslims, Christians, and Jews. However, cataclysmic events such as the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, European colonialism, and colonial Zionism disrupted the ecumenical frame of religious coexistence in the Arab Mosha'rik.
European powers impose colonial domination and division in the Middle East
Following World War I, European powers divided and conquered the Arab Mosha'rik, creating British and French colonial mandates in Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, and Palestine. These imperial interventions and the Balfour Declaration in Palestine disrupted religious coexistence and deepened sectarian divisions. The imposition of colonial Zionism displaced Muslim and Christian Palestinians, while Arab Jews were pushed into Israel, fracturing the Arab Jewish identity and undermining the ecumenical frame.
The Arab Renaissance or Nada emerges in response to sectarian violence and Western imperialism
The Arab Renaissance, known as the Nada, emerged amidst sectarian violence and the imposition of Western imperialism. It was a period of intellectual and political ferment in the Arab Mosha'rik, where individuals and groups debated questions of modernity, religious-state relationships, and pluralism. The Nada rejected European liberalism and focused on nation-building within the framework of the Ottoman Empire, seeking to reconcile religious difference and retain a shared Arab identity. It was a pivotal moment that highlighted the urgency of developing a common future and challenged the dominant narratives of timeless religious violence in the region.
The legacy of the Ottoman Empire and the lack of comparative work
After the breakup of the Ottoman Empire, there was a lack of comparative work between different regions due to a focus on national historiography and a lack of knowledge across regions. The emergence of national identities and the emphasis on westernization played a role in neglecting the interconnectedness of the former Empire.
The creation of a secular but intolerant state in Turkey
Turkey, after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, became a secular state under Mustafa Kemal, but it was a state that suppressed and excluded its Christian populations. The Turkish state viewed minorities as a threat and acted ruthlessly against those it perceived as challenging its sovereignty.
The impact of colonialism and the mandates in the Middle East
European colonial powers, particularly Britain and France, divided up the Arab East after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire. The mandate system imposed European rule and influenced the development of separate national identities. The mandates, while claiming to support self-determination, were ultimately designed to fulfill colonial interests rather than those of the local populations.
The sectarian governance in Lebanon under French colonialism
Lebanon's sectarian governance was established under French colonialism, where a Maronite Christian elite collaborated with the French and worked to create a system that could co-opt Muslim communities. The Lebanese system aimed to integrate different religious groups but ended up privileging Christians, leading to unequal political representation and perpetuating sectarian divisions.
Featuring Ussama Makdisi on the late Ottoman Empire's Arab culture of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish coexistence—an ecumenical frame that was interrupted by European colonialism and Zionism, which exacerbated and exploited sectarianism. This is the first of a two-part interview.
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