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Spinoza's Amsterdam
- Spinoza's family were Portuguese Jews who fled to Amsterdam due to religious persecution.
- Amsterdam was a vibrant hub for trade, science, and intellectual freedom in the 17th century.
God or Nature
- Spinoza's concept of "Deus sive Natura" (God or Nature) unifies God and the universe into a single substance.
- This challenges the traditional view of God as separate from the world.
Determinism
- Spinoza's universe is deterministic, rejecting free will.
- Human choices are necessitated by a chain of causes, an illusion of freedom.