Ascend - The Great Books Podcast

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discuss the FINAL book of the Iliad: Book 24 - Achilles and Priam. Check out our 65-page guide to the Iliad!I have put to my lips the hands of the man who killed my son. Priam to Achilles (24.591) 103.    What happens in book twenty-four?The funeral games have ended, and Achilles, who still mourns for Patroclus, drags Hector’s body behind his chariot around Patroclus’ tomb (24.19). Twelve days after the death of Hector, Apollo pleads with the gods to save the body of the Trojan prince (24.39). In response, Zeus declares that “Achilles must receive a ransom from King Priam, Achilles must give Hector’s body back” (24.94). Zeus tells Thetis his plan, and Thetis informs her son (24.127). Zeus sends Iris to Troy to tell King Priam, who she finds smeared in dung and mourning his son, that the Father of gods and men commands him to ransom his son from Achilles (24.204). Priam, despite the protests of his wife (24.238), obeys the goddess and prepares to leave (24.259). Priam leaves Troy on his chariot alongside a wagon of treasure (24.382). On the plains of Troy, Priam is met by Hermes, under the guise of a Myrmidon, who guides him into the Achaean camp (24.526). Hermes reveals himself to Priam and tells the king of Troy to go into Achilles’ tent and hug his knees (24.546).Priam does as he is told, and, hugging the knees of Achilles, kisses “his hands, those terrible man-killing hands that slaughtered Priam’s many sons in battle” (24.562). Priam exhorts Achilles to remember his own father, Peleus, and Achilles thinks of his father and weeps with Priam (24.595). Priam asks for the body of Hector (24.650), and though Achilles warns Priam not to tempt his rage (24.667), Achilles has the body of Hector washed and carries it to the wagon himself (24.691). Achilles promises King Priam that the Achaeans will wait twelve days before restarting the war to allow Troy to bury Prince Hector (24.787). Priam sleeps on the porch outside the lodge of Achilles, and Hermes wakes him up to send him home before Agamemnon finds him (24.808). Priam returns home to Troy, and Troy is “plunged… into uncontrollable grief” (24.831). For nine days, the Trojans “hauled in boundless stores of timber” for the funeral pyre of Hector (24.921). On the tenth day, they set the body of Hector “aloft the pyre’s crest, [and] flung a torch and set it all aflame” (24.924). The next day, the Trojans bury Hector’s bones in a golden chest and end the rites with a “splendid funeral feast” (24.942). And thus, Homer ends the Iliad with the burial of “Hector breaker of horses” (24.944). 104.    What is the backstory of why Hera and Athena hate Troy?In the final book of the Iliad, Homer makes reference to the narratives that led to the Trojan war. Hera states that she “brought up” Thetis and gave her in marriage to a mortal, King Peleus (24.72). The story goes that Zeus loved Thetis, but the Titan Prometheus told him that Thetis was destined to bear a son greater than his father.[1] As such, Zeus gave Thetis to Peleus, a mortal, so the son would also be mortal.[2] Homer’s reference of Hera’s role in the Iliad implies she had some part in this scheme as well. Peleus had to wrestle the immortal sea nymph, Thetis, as she changed shapes to win her heart.[3] He was successful, and the gods threw a grand marriage for King Peleus and the immortal Thetis.All the gods were invited to the wedding except for the goddess Discord or Eris.[4] Discord arrived at the wedding and tossed in a golden apple for “the most beautiful” goddess.[5] Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite all claimed the prize. As Hamilton notes, “They asked Zeus to judge between them, but very wisely he refused to have anything to do with the matter.”[6] Instead, Zeus recommends the goddesses present themselves to Paris, the Trojan prince, who is “an excellent judge of beauty.”[7] Paris, however, was in exile from Troy, because Priam received a prophecy that Paris would “be the ruin of his country.”[8] The goddesses presented themselves to Paris and offered him gifts (or bribes): “Hera promised to make him Lord of Europe and Asia; Athena, that he would lead the Trojans against the Greeks and lay Greece in ruins; [and] Aphrodite, that the fairest woman in all the world should be his.”[9] Paris awarded the golden apple to Aphrodite who, in turn, offered him Helen of Sparta—who already happened to be married to the King of Sparta, Menelaus.Moreover, it is notable that Paris was already living with the beautiful nymph Oenone by Mount Ida outside of Troy.[10] She loved him without knowing he was a prince of Troy.[11] He abandoned her, even after she foretold to him what destruction awaited if he sailed to Sparta for Helen.[12] It is said she still promised to heal him if he were to be wounded in the upcoming war, but when the time came for her to help Paris, she refused—still upset about his betrayal.[13] Paris succumbed to his injuries and died; and Oenone, in her grief, hanged herself.[14]Next week we'll discuss what happens AFTER the Iliad but BEFORE the Odyssey. Then we'll start the Odyssey![1] Companion, 429.[2] Companion, 429.[3] Companion, 429.[4] Companion, 422; Hamilton, 198.[5] Companion, 422.[6] Hamilton, 198.[7] Hamilton, 198.[8] Hamilton, 198.[9] Hamilton, 198; Companion, 422.[10] Companion, 406.[11] Companion, 406.[12] Companion, 406.[13] Companion, 406.[14] Companion, 406.

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discuss Book 23 of the Iliad: The Funeral Games. Check out this section of our guide to the Iliad!Sleeping, Achilles? You’ve forgotten me, my friend. You never neglected me in life, only now in death. Bury me, quickly—let me pass the Gates of Hades. Patroclus (23.81) 100.    What happened in book twenty-three?Now back at the Achaean camp, Achilles leads his Myrmidons in mourning around the body of Patroclus (23.13). That night, as Achilles lay by the shoreline, the ghost of Patroclus appears to him (23.76). Patroclus states: “Sleeping Achilles? You’ve forgotten me, my friend… bury me, quickly—let me pass the gates of Hades” (23.81). For as Patroclus further explains, he is not permitted to cross the river Styx until he has received his funeral rites (23.86).[1] Finally, Patroclus requests that his bones and the bones of Achilles be placed in a single urn and buried together (23.100). The next morning, Achilles has a pyre built for Patroclus (23.188). Achilles slaughters sheep, cattle, stallions, and two of Patroclus’ dogs and places them all on the pyre with Patroclus (23.190). He then slaughters a dozen young Trojans, as sacrifices to lay alongside Patroclus on his pyre (23.200). The pyre is lit and, after praying to two of the gods of the winds, it burns well (23.221). Meanwhile, Homer tells us that Apollo and Aphrodite are protecting the body of Hector from harm and decay (23.212).Achilles tends to the pyre all night until “sleep overwhelms him” (23.265). Achilles awakes and tells the Achaeans to gather the bones of Patroclus and place them into a golden urn; then, the urn will be placed in a small barrow until Achilles dies, then a large barrow will be built for the two of them (23.281). Achilles then announces there will be “funeral games” (23.298), which will consist of a chariot race, boxing, wrestling, a footrace, a duel in battle gear, shot put, archery, and spear throwing. The culture of competition demonstrated in these funeral games would eventually give rise to the Olympics.[2] 101.    Who won the funeral games?The winners of the chariot race were in order: Diomedes, Antilochus, Menelaus, Meriones, and Eumelus (23.572). Eumelus received a consolation prize from Achilles (23.621). Menelaus accuses Antilochus of a foul, Antilochus concedes to him; yet Menelaus’ anger relents, and the Spartan king gives the second prize, the mare, back to Antilochus (23.680). Achilles gives the original fifth place prize to Nestor as a reminder of Patroclus (23.689). Epeus defeats Euryalus in a boxing match (23.769). Giant Ajax and Odysseus wrestle to a stalemate (23.818). Odysseus, with the help of Athena, wins the footrace (23.864). In the duel in battle gear, Giant Ajax goes against Diomedes, but the friends of Giant Ajax call for it to stop (23.913). Achilles then awards a sword to Diomedes as the winner (23.915). In shot put, Polypoetes takes the prize (23.939). Meriones, with the blessing of Apollo, defeats Teucer in archery (23.977). Lastly, Agamemnon wins the spear throwing contest by default due to his station as the high king (23.989). 102.    What else should we observe in book twenty-three? The apparition of Patroclus reveals the religious understanding that a body denied its funeral rites condemns the soul to wander in the afterlife unable to cross the river Styx (23.81). It further illuminates the spiritual cruelty Achilles inflicts upon the Trojans in the river Xanthus in book twenty-two and his present cruelty to Hector. We also see an Achilles who is now deferential to Agamemnon and his role as high king (23.179, 986). The rage of Achilles—and arguably his inhuman arc toward deification—culminates in human sacrifice (23.199). It also recalls the story of Agamemnon and his daughter. It is almost comical how the gods must also interfere with the funeral games (23.432, 859, 965), but, on the other hand, piety is rewarded even in the small things. Iron again makes an appearance in the Iliad this time as a prize (23.917).[1] Fagles, 632.[2] Fagles, 57.WE'LL BE READING THE ODYSSEY NEXT IN A FEW WEEKS!Join us!

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discuss Book 22 on the Death of Hector. “There are no binding oaths between men and lions—wolves and lambs can enjoy no meeting of the minds—they are all bent on hating each other to death.” Achilles (22.310). 97.      What happens in book twenty-two? The Trojans scurry back into the city like “panicked fawns,” while Hector remains outside the walls (22.05). Apollo, who had taken the form of a Trojan soldier to make Achilles chase him, reveals his trickery to Achilles (22.09)—and Achilles turns back to the city (22.26). Despite the pleas of Priam (22.31) and Hecuba (22.93), Hector remains outside the walls “nursing his quenchless fury” (22.115). As Achilles approaches, Hector’s courage fails, and he begins to run around the walls of Troy with Achilles in pursuit (22.163). Zeus’ “heart grieves for Hector,” (22.202), but he gives permission to Athena to do as she wills (22.220). Hector tries to enter the city, but Achilles thwarts him (22.234). Achilles also holds back the Achaean army, now observing the chase, from intervening (22.245). Zeus once again holds out his golden scales, and fate elects that it is time for Hector to die (22.249).Athena takes on the form of Deiphobus, brother of Hector, and convinces Hector to stand together and fight Achilles (22.271). Hector faces Achilles and tries to make a pact that the victor will not mutilate the corpse of the fallen but give it to his people for burial (22.301). Achilles rejects this offer, stating: “There are no binding oaths between men and lions—wolves and lambs can enjoy no meeting of the minds—they are all bent on hating each other to death” (22.310). Hector and Achilles clash in combat, and Hector calls to his brother, Deiphobus, for help—but there is no answer (22.347). Hector realizes the gods have tricked him and that his time has come (22.350). He elects to die in glory, and he charges Achilles (22.359). Achilles strikes down Hector and tells him: “The dogs and birds will maul you” (22.395). Hector pleads to be given to his people, but Achilles rejects him saying: “My fury would drive me now to hack your flesh away and eat you raw” (22.408). Hector prophesies that “Paris and Lord Apollo” will strike down Achilles outside of Troy (22.423). Hector dies (22.425). The Achaeans all stab his body (22.437), and Achilles drags it behind his chariot (22.466). Priam and Hecuba cry out for their son (22.478), and Andromache “bursts out in grief” (22.560). The book ends with Andromache lamenting the impending fate of her son, Astyanax, the little “Lord of the City” (22.569). 98.      What structure does piety give the death of Hector?Previously, Hector’s return to Troy provided an insight into the ancient threefold notion of piety: gratitude toward the gods, the city, and the family. It is a gratitude that precipitates a sense of duty. The threefold notion of piety—which is in a hierarchal order—appears to provide a certain infrastructure (and tension) to the narrative around Hector’s death. For example, Hector disregards the appeals of his parents, Priam (22.32) and Hecuba (22.93), to retreat to the walls of Troy presumably due to his duty to defend Troy (22.129). Hector’s piety toward the gods is praised by Zeus in the same conversation in which the son of Cronus orchestrates his death (22.129). It is notable the deception of Hector comes through his comradery toward another soldier of Troy and a familial relation, his brother (22.270). It further raises the question that for all Hector’s piety toward Troy, no one seems interested in helping him. Hector, who is dying, attempts to plead with Achilles by appealing to his parents (22.399). Ultimately, Hector dies prior to the fall of Troy, as he wished.Whether Hector’s piety has afforded him anything with the gods, Troy, or his family will be a question to watch throughout the end of the Iliad. 99.      What else should be observed in book twenty-two?Priam gives an insight into his own fate when Troy falls (22.73). Hector acknowledges his fatal error in not listening to Polydamas to retreat to walls of Troy after seeing Achilles, but one may question what culpability Hector bears for such a decision due to Athena’s influence (22.118). One is tempted to find meaning in Scamander (Xanthus) bring fed by both a hot and cold spring (22.177). The pattern of “three times and then on the fourth” occurs again with Hector running around the city (22.248). The golden scales of Zeus return, and again raise the question of whether Zeus is adhering to a separate nameless fate or this is simply a device to express his own will. The fatalistic quality of the Iliad is demonstrable in Achilles state that “Athena” will kill Hector (22.319), and Athena giving Achilles his spear back after he misses (22.325). One may question, as Aeneas did in a way, whether Achilles is even the best warrior in the Trojan war naturally speaking.In the clash of Achilles and Hector, both men wear armor made by the gods (22.380), and one may imagine Hector’s view of the juxtaposition of Achilles’ rage with the imagery on his shield. Though it arguably found a boundary in attempting a feud with Xanthus, Achilles’ arguably deification through the medium of rage is displayed in his spiritual cruelty in denying Hector his last rites and in his comment on eating Hector raw (22.407). There is a certain irony in Achilles blaming Hector for the agonies he and the Achaeans had suffered (22.448). We find Andromache “working flowered braiding into a dark red folding robe,” which recalls the dark red robe of Helen that served as an analogue to the war (22.518). It is noteworthy to compare Andromache drawing a bath for Hector’s return (22.519) with her earlier singing of his funeral dirges. Check out our website for our guide to the Iliad!

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discussed BOOK 21 of the Iliad: Achilles Fights the River.“Come friend, you too must die. Why moan about it so? […] Even for me, I tell you, death and strong force of fate are waiting.”Achilles (21.119).CHECK OUT OUR GUIDE TO THE ILIAD.93.      What happens in book twenty-one?The Trojans are in full retreat. Achilles drives half the Trojan army back toward Troy over the plains, but the other half is driven into the Xanthus river (21.09). Achilles, who leaps into the waters, slaughters Trojans until his arm grows tired—at which point he captures twelve Trojans for Patroclus’ funeral (21.30). Achilles, “insane to hack more flesh” (21.37), returns to the river and kills Lycaon, a Trojan hugging his knees for mercy (21.131). Achilles kill Asteropaeus, son of the river god Axius, who was ambidextrous and fought with two spears (21.185). The river Xanthus takes human shape, and the river-god cries out to Achilles: “All my lovely rapids are crammed with corpses now… Leave me alone… I am filled with horror!” (21.250)Achilles agrees, but then overhears the river-god Xanthus asking Apollo to help the Trojans (21.258). Achilles plunges into the “river’s heart” to war against him (21.264), and Xanthus beats and batters Achilles down with roaring waves (21.281). Achilles cries out to Zeus to not let him die like some pig-boy who failed to ford the river (21.319), and Poseidon and Athena save him (21.325). Xanthus tries to attack Achilles again on the flooded corpse-ridden plains of Troy (21.370), but Hera sends Hephaestus to save him (21.377). The god of fire scorches the plains consuming the water and corpses alike (21.396). Xanthus cries out to Hera, and Hephaestus relents (21.418).Zeus was “delighted” to see the gods in conflict (21.442). Athena once again defeats Ares (21.462) and then batters down Aphrodite when she tries to help him (21.484). Poseidon challenges Apollo, but Apollo refuses to fight (21.527). Artemis, his sister, mocks Apollo and, having caught the attention of Hera, is subsequently beaten down by Zeus’ consort (21.545). Hermes tells Leto he will not fight her and allows her to take her daughter, Artemis, up to Olympus (21.568). Apollo heads to Troy to help them not fall to the Achaeans (21.592). The book ends with Apollo saving Agenor from Achilles, but then taking on the appearance of the Trojan and leading Achilles on a chase away from Troy (21.657). 94.      Is Achilles becoming more god-like?The increasing rage of Achilles is presented as a sort of deification. We have already seen him reject mortal food only to be fed by immortal ambrosia (19.412), and end of the last book linked his rage with being like a god (20.558). Book twenty-one continues the theme of tethering Achilles’ increasing rage with becoming more god-like.[1] Notably, in his ascending rage, Achilles the mortal elects to take on a minor god, the river-god Xanthus (21.264). One is tempted here to present Achilles’ rage as something unnatural, inhuman that is repulsive particularly to a god of nature.[2] Achilles’ ascendency to godhood via his rage shows its limitations, as he is conquered by the river-god (21.308). We should note that for him to die as a “pig-boy” would be an ignoble death in contradistinction to his elected fate to win everlasting glory in Troy. Achilles is saved by Hephaestus at Hera’s command or rather the Olympian gods save Achilles from the river-god (21.430). Achilles’ god-like rage is very much an Olympian-like rage. Many of the metaphors for Achilles’ rage are thematic to fire, and here we see the god of fire ignite and consume all around him (21.396). Zeus delights in the “chaos” between the gods (21.442). Athena beats Ares (21.462), and then cruelly and somewhat thematically beats Aphrodite on her breasts (21.484).[3] Homer shows Hera flying “into a rage” (21.546) and cruelly beating Artemis (21.561). If Achilles’ ascendency to godhood is one of rage, then Homer shows the divine rage in its maturity amongst the gods.Check out our website for more notes![1] For example, 20.21; 358.[2] Xanthus has his own rage, a rage of Achilles clogging up his waters with corpses (21.256).[3] The hatred for Aphrodite demonstrated by both Hera and Athena is at the heart of the entire Trojan war as explained in book twenty-four.

Dcn. Harrison Garlick interviews George of the Chivalry Guild on topics such as CS Lewis, virtue, magnanimity, meekness, and the importance of strength and prowess. Deacon and George will also discuss his new book - "Chivalry: An Ideal Whose Time Has Come Again" - and explore the concept of noblesse oblige. Thank you for checking out Ascend! We exist to help people study the great books and explore timeless truths. Check out our website and account on X for more information.

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan delve into the epic narrative of the Iliad: Book 20, focusing on the Olympian Gods impacting the Trojan War. Zeus permits divine intervention, leading to intense clashes between gods and mortals. Aeneas faces Achilles in a failed duel, hinting at tragic fate. The hosts also discuss integrating classic literature into clergy formation and explore themes of free will and fate in Homer's work.

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discuss Book 19 of the Iliad: The Champion Arms for Battle!Achilles prepares to enter the war!Summary of Book 19How does Odysseus try to broker peace?What should we make of Briseis weeping over Patroclus?Who is Ate, the goddess of ruin?“You talk of food? I have no taste for food—what I really crave is slaughter and blood and the choking groans of men!” Achilles (19.254). 85.      What happens in book nineteen? Thetis returns to Achilles with new armor crafted by Hephaestus (19.03). Achilles lets loose his war cry, and the Achaean army gathers around him (19.47). Achilles promises to cease his rage against Agamemnon and to rejoin the war (19.63). Agamemnon, in turn, blames the gods for his madness, as they blinded him and “stole his wits” (19.162). He pledges to Achilles all the treasures Odysseus promised him (19.168). Achilles accepts Agamemnon’s non-apology and calls the Achaeans to war (19.176). Odysseus counsels to allow the men to eat and rest, and that Agamemnon do three things: give the gifts to Achilles now, swear he’s never had sex with Briseis, and host Achilles at a feast (19.204). Agamemnon agrees (19.220), and Achilles begrudgingly agrees—but swears he will neither eat nor drink until he can wage war (19.249). He famously declares: “You talk of food? I have no taste for food—what I really crave is slaughter and blood and the choking groans of men!” (19.254). The Achaeans follow the advice of Odysseus (19.281). Achilles refuses to eat, and Zeus sends Athena to place ambrosia “deep within his chest” to give him strength (19.412). With “unbearable grief” and “bursting with rage,” Achilles prepares to fight the Trojans (19.434). The narrative ends with one of Achilles’ horses, Roan Beauty, prophesying to Achilles about his death (19.483). 86.      Why does Odysseus push for the gifts to be given prior to returning to war? In the last book, Achilles said he would “beat his anger down” and fight for the Argives (18.133). The thesis was presented, however, that it is more that Achilles shifts his rage to Hector than he truly forgives Agamemnon (Question 82). In book nineteen, we see Achilles’ anger continue fester. The more he stared at his new armor “the deeper his anger went” (19.19). To the Achaean army, Achilles largely repeats his commitment to relent in book eighteen, stating additionally, in part, “Now, by god, I call a halt to all my anger—it’s wrong to keep on raging, heart inflamed forever” (19.76). Here, he must only mean his rage against Agamemnon, for his rage and bloodlust continue to boil, as evident in his famous line: “You talk of food? I have no taste for food—what I really crave is slaughter and blood and the choking groans of men!” (19.254). By the time he arms for battle, he is again “bursting with rage” (19.434). Odyssey’s push to address the issues between Achilles and Agamemnon prior to returning to war may be seen as a push toward true reconciliation (or, more realistically, a practical resolution). He knows, as do all the Achaeans, that Achilles’ rage makes him capricious. As such, his push to give the treasure, to give the oath about Briseis, and to feast all seemed aimed at capitalizing and securing this moment of peace and reunion. Stability between the two heroes is vital for an Achaean success. Between Achilles’ shift in rage and Agamemnon’s fatalistic non-apology, Odysseus seeks to find a reliable truce. 87.      What should we make of Briseis weeping over Patroclus? After Briseis is released by Agamemnon, she comes upon the body of Patroclus (19.333). We learn, amongst other things, that Achilles killed her husband, and that Patroclus comforted her (19.348). The nature of his comfort, however, is notable, as Patroclus promised Briseis that she would become the wife of Achilles (19.351). The revelation is notable for two primary reasons. First, one may tether this insight to Patroclus’ mission in Troy to help Achilles quell his anger. In other words, Patroclus sees marriage as a way to help his friend temper his emotions and mature. Secondly, this leads into Thetis presenting Achilles with his two fates: to return to Troy, marry, and live a long life or fight and die in Troy to gain immortal glory. The question becomes whether, in Achilles’ mind, returning home meant marrying Briseis, and whether this revelation informs, in part, his rage against Agamemnon for taking her. Moreover, the choice of Thetis becomes less a speculative consideration and more a concrete life with Briseis he is forgoing for glory. One wonders whether her return to his tent will make him rethink his decision or whether his rage over the death of Patroclus will continue to outweigh all else. Finally, we should note the irony Homer presents in Patroclus, the one who had the mission of tempering Achilles’ rage, now serving as the source of that rage—a rage that is blinding him to his potential life with Briseis.[1][1] The life of Briseis as a slave somewhat foreshadows the future of life of Andromache.And More! Check out our full guide at our website.

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discuss Book 18 of the Iliad: The Shield of Achilles. Arguably the MOST philosophically dense book in the entire Iliad. Summary of the NarrativeWhat lesson does the "heart" of Achilles teach?How do we interpret the shield of Achilles?Check out our 115 QUESTION GUIDE to the Iliad. How should we interpret the shield of Achilles?The shield of Achilles presents a commentary on the cosmos. It is a testament to the Greek belief that the world is ordered and in balance. From the heavens to human civilization to the boundaries of the known world, a certain order and intelligibility permeates reality. Reality is not chaotic. Man inhabits an ordered whole.Homer presents the scenes on the shield starting with the center and moving outward in concentric circles toward the edge with certain circles having multiple parts. The scenes on the shield may be described as follows: 1.    The earth, sky, sea, sun, and moon (18.565)2.    The constellations (18.567)3.    City at Peace: The wedding feast (18.573)4.    City at Peace: The court of justice (18.580)5.    City at War: A city under siege (18.593)6.    City at War: Raid by the besieged (18.598)7.    Ploughing the field (18.629)8.    Harvesting the field (18.639)9.    The vineyard festival (18.654)10. The cattle under attack (18.670)11. The flock in the meadow at peace (18.686)12. The circle of dancing and courtship (18.690)13. Ocean’s River (18.708) On the shield itself, one may expect that Zeus would inhabit the center of shield rather than the heavenly bodies. The absence of Zeus at the center raises the question of the role of the gods within the cosmos. Notably, there is no ring dedicated to the Olympian gods, as one may think vital to a testament on the order of the cosmos. Moreover, the only Olympian gods that are mentioned are in the City at War. One may question whether there is a Homeric lesson embedded here on whether the gods are agents of order or chaos within the cosmic whole.The City at Peace is characterized by love and justice. The marriage is a witness to love and binding, while the court scene is a witness to justice and resolution. Note that the City at Peace is not without conflict; rather, the City at Peace is able to resolve the conflict through justice. The City at War is an obvious contrast. The city under siege inevitably recalls the current plight of Troy. It is, as noted above, the only section that includes the gods.The ploughing and harvesting scenes are naturally coupled. The plowmen enjoy wine as they work, and the harvesting depiction includes the presence of the king and terminates in a harvest feast (18.650). The pastoral imagery is coupled with characteristics of civilization. The vineyard scene is one of wine, music, innocence, and joviality. Though unnamed, it is all characteristic of Dionysus, the jovial wine-god. The cattle scene, however, is one marked by duty, danger, death, and violence. There is also the coupling of the domestic cattle and the wild lions. The herdsmen being unable to fend off the wild lions presents parallels to the conflict in the earlier City at War, and both scenes raise an inclination that there are analogues here to the present conflict in Troy. The conflict of the herdsmen and lions gives way to the serene meadow at peace—a possible parallel to the City at Peace. We then receive the circle of dancing, another festive scene, and one set within the courtship of young boys and girls (18.693). The human depictions on the shield of Achilles appear to begin and end with love. The rim of the shield is the rim of the known world, Ocean’s River.There are many more questions about the shield. For example, what is Hephaestus’ intent is presenting such a narrative on the shield? Moreover, what in the character of Achilles—whose rage is the animus of the epic—corresponds to such a cosmic reflection on the order of civilization? One answer may lie in the two fates of Achilles. The shield depicts the life of peace and marriage that Achilles rejected in favor of a life of war and glory. Another question would be whether Achilles learns anything from the depiction on his shield. Does the cosmic narrative of peace and war affect his character at all? One is tempted to note that, when Achilles holds the shield, the narrative faces away from him—he is blind to it. What then does it mean for others, especially the Trojans, who can look upon both Achilles and his shield?[1][1] Another comparison is to the Iliad and the Odyssey; as the former is often called a book of war, while the latter is called a book of peace. Each epic, to a degree, takes up the themes of their respective cities.

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discuss Book 17 of the Iliad: Menelaus' Finest Hour. Summary of Book 17What is the "dark heart" of Hector?Can human agency affect fate?What about the horses of Achilles?Check out our 115 Question & Answer Guide on the Iliad. But grief bore down on Hector, packing his dark heart.Homer (17.92) 75.      What happens in books seventeen?The body of Patroclus still lays on the plains outside of Troy. Menelaus, the Spartan king, slays Euphorbus, the Trojan who had speared Patroclus (17.51). Apollo spurs Hector to fight for the body of Patroclus (17.84), and Hector is able to remove Patroclus’ gear—but Ajax returns and stops him from decapitating the corpse (17.146). Glaucus, friend of the dead Sarpedon, chastises Hector for retreating from Ajax and implies that if Hector was more like Ajax, they could have saved the body of their comrade, Sarpedon (17.172). Hector retorts he is no coward, but the will of Zeus forces cowardice upon him (17.201). Hector then puts on the armor of Achilles, stripped from Patroclus, and Zeus, taking pity on Hector, grants him power and makes the armor fit well—but also states Hector will never return home again (17.230).Hector leads the Trojans in battle for the body of Patroclus (17.263), and the Achaeans, led by giant Ajax and Menelaus, mount a defense (17.290). The Achaeans take the advantage, and Apollo spurs Aeneas to rally the Trojans (17.379), but Ajax and the Achaeans remains stalwart in their defense (17.420). Zeus shifts his favor to the Achaeans and sends Athena to rouse their fighting spirits (17.623). Apollo chastises Hector, and as Hector charges to the frontlines, Zeus releases a bolt of lightning to show he now favors the Achaeans (17.670). Giant Ajax laments: “Dear god, enough! Any idiot boy could see how Father Zeus himself supports these Trojans” (17.707). Zeus pities Ajax and thus removes his storm clouds from the battlefield and “the whole war swung into view” (17.729). Menelaus, at the suggestion of Ajax, sends Antilochus, son of Nestor and “a favorite of Achilles,” to go tell Achilles what has happened (17.776).[1] The Achaeans grab the body of Patroclus and bear him back to their ships, as the two great Aeantes hold off the Trojans (17.823, 843); until Hector and Aeneas come leading the Trojans “like a crowd of crows… screaming murder,” and the Achaeans break and flee for the ships (17.846). 76.      What should we make of the “dark heart” of Hector?In book seventeen, we are introduced to the “dark heart” of Hector (17.92). The “dark heart” is presented within the juxtaposition of Apollo spurring Hector to fight (17.84), and Hector surveying the reality of the battlefield (17.93).[2] It is a moment of “grief” for the Trojan Prince (17.92). Hector does charge the front line “loosing a savage cry, and flaring on like fire, like the god of fire” (17.96). Such a reaction to the spurring of a god seems normative in the Iliad, but what seems abnormal is the moment of grief in between. Moreover, the pattern occurs again later in which Apollo again spurs Hector, Hector bears a “black cloud of grief,” and then charges the frontlines (17.660, 670).The “dark heart” of Hector gives further credence to his role as the tragic, tortured hero of Troy. He is or is becoming a broken vessel over spent by the gods. How many lives has Hector already given for Troy? Yet over and over again, he is reanimated by the gods and tossed back into the fray of a war already determined. He a ragdoll in a fatalistic dispute amongst the gods. In fact, right after the second notion of this grief gripping Hector, he is speared in the chest but presumably saved by the divine (17.684). One may consider what psychological toll the war is bearing on Hector and how much more the Trojan prince has to give for his homeland. 78.      How much does human agency affect fate?The Iliad is often critiqued for being overly fatalistic: man lacks any true agency in the world and his actions are simply determined by the divine. For example, when Glaucus sets forth the critique of cowardice against Hector, the Trojan prince responds that he is never a coward unless Zeus makes him one (17.201). On another occasion, an Achaean soldier states: “but all lies in the lap of the great gods, I’ll fling a spear myself and leave the rest to the Zeus (17.587). The deterministic quality of the Iliad usually opens it to criticisms of being flat and without a true human drama. For example, to what degree may Hector be held culpable for his actions when he is acted upon so often by the gods? We raised a similar question with Helen earlier in the epic. Books seventeen, however, also reminds us that man bears a certain receptivity to the divine and an arguable co-authorship over his own actions. We see that even though Zeus may favor the Trojans for an advance, Achaean fortitude and Trojan fear may adjust the outcome (17.372). Again, we return to the thesis that the fixed destiny is flexible. One may recall Athena rushing to stop Achilles from slaying Agamemnon in book one, and how her actions upon him had to be coupled with his receptivity in order to be truly efficacious. The Iliad is certainly fatalistic, but the human agency is not without consequence—the degree to which the human may affect fate is a matter of much debate.Check out the guide for more![1] Fagles, 644.[2] Lattimore translates the line: “But bitter sorrow closed over Hektor’s heart in its darkness,” (17.83). In Fagles, the phrase “dark heart” is also notably used elsewhere in book seventeen to describe an Achaean (17.571).

Dcn. Harrison Garlick and Adam Minihan discuss Book 16 of the Iliad: Patroclus Fights and Dies. Summary of Book 16What is the difference between Zeus and Fate?What is the relation of Fate to the free will of men?Did Patroclus deserve his fate?Check our GUIDE ON THE ILIAD. 70.      What happens in books sixteen? Patroclus returns to Achilles and begs Achilles to send him out to fight in Achilles’ armor (16.43). Homer writes: “So [Patroclus] pleaded, lost in his own great innocence, condemned to beg for his own death and brutal doom” (16.53). Achilles comes to understand his rage cannot last forever, but he recalls his promise not to fight until the “cries and carnage reached” his own ships (16.72). Thus, Achilles agrees and sends Patroclus with his armor and the Myrmidons to fight (16.74). However, Achilles tells Patroclus to only fight the Trojans off the Argive ships and not to pursue them back to Troy, because that may diminish his glory, the fame of Achilles (16.105). Homer notably invokes the Muses to help him sing about the burning of the Achaean ships (16.135). Ajax is unable to stop Hector and his men from setting the ship ablaze, and Achilles sees the flames and sends out Patroclus with the Myrmidons (16.151). The Trojan columns “buckle” upon seeing Patroclus who they believe is Achilles (16.328), as Patroclus bears all of Achilles’ war gear save his spear (16.168); thus, Patroclus and the Argives set upon the Trojans like “ravenous wolves” upon lambs (16.415). Sarpedon, son of Zeus, is slain by Patroclus (16.570), and Glaucus, strengthened by Apollo, rallies his fellow Trojans to secure Sarpedon’s body (16.631). Similarly, Patroclus rallies Ajax and the Argives to the body of Sarpedon, the first to storm the Argive wall (16.653), to “mutilate him, shame him, [and] tear his gear from his back” (16.653). Thus, the body of Sarpedon, son of Zeus, becomes lost under the “mass of weapons, blood, and dust” (16.743). Zeus makes Hector a coward, and the Trojan prince calls for a retreat (16.763). The Achaeans win the body of Sarpedon, but Zeus sends Apollo to rescue the body before it can be mutilated (16.777). Patroclus, not heeding the command of Achilles, pushes his assault onward toward Troy (16.803). Apollo repels Patroclus’ assaults on Troy and warns the warrior that it is “not the will of fate” that Troy falls to him (16.826). Though Apollo strengthens Hector (16.840), Patroclus still presses forward but Apollo sneaks behind him and slams Patroclus to the ground with a slap across the back (16.920). Disoriented, Patroclus is then stabbed in the back by Euphorbus, a Trojan (16.938), who then retreats. Hector then runs forward and spears Patroclus in the gut—the “brazen point went jutting straight out through Patroclus’ back” (16.967). Hector taunts the dying Patroclus (16.967), and Patroclus dies prophesying that Hector will die soon (16.998).[1] The last word of Patroclus is “Achilles” (16.1000). 71.      What do we observe about Zeus and the nameless fate in book sixteen? We see Zeus lament his “cruel fate” in his son, Sarpedon, having to die to bring about the death of Patroclus (16.514). Knox holds this shows the “will of Zeus is thwarted by fate.”[2] He writes that the “will of Zeus” and this “nameless destiny” are “irreconcilables” held in “coexistence.”[3] He sees in this the nascent discussion in the Western tradition to “embrace the logical contradiction of freedom and order combined.”[4] Many will note that both Zeus and Hera seem to assume that Zeus could change Sarpedon’s “doom sealed long ago” but that doing so would introduce chaos (16.524). The scene is reminiscent of Zeus holding out the golden scales in book eight (Question 46). Is fate simply an alter ego of Zeus, a manifestation of his will, or is Zeus truly subject in some way to the nameless fate? We should also recall that Zeus already showed himself vulnerable to the more primordial forces of Sleep and Love. It should be remembered that once Zeus gives his assent, he cannot change his decision; thus, his own will certainly manufactures a particular fate to which even he is bound. Note that just prior to Patroclus’ death we are told: “the Father’s spirit churning, thrashing out the ways, the numberless ways to cause Patroclus’ slaughter” (16.752). As Knox observes, “the idea of destiny, of what is fixed, is flexible.”[5] The question is whether Zeus is bound by and even an agent of a more cosmic, nameless fate. 72.      What observations may be made between fate and the will of men? Hector, who is acted upon often by the gods, occasions several examples in book sixteen of the dynamics between the will of man and the will of the gods. First, observe that upon the Achaean advance, Hector, who knows the tide has turned, “still stood firm, defending die-hard comrades” (16.428). Then Zeus sends cyclones to produce the foretold “dust storm” (16.442), and Hector’s horses speed him away as his fellow Trojans die (16.433). For a more explicit example, Zeus begins the work of Patroclus’ death by making Hector a coward (16.763). Hector, however, appears aware that Zeus is acting upon him (16.766). Homer tells us that Patroclus “might have escaped his doom” if he had listened to Achilles, but ultimately “the will of Zeus will always overpower the will of men” (16.803). Similarly, as Patroclus attempts to assault Troy, Apollo repels him and says: “it is not the will of fate” that Troy fall to him (16.826). As an aside, the reader should note that Apollo also says it is not the fate of Troy to fall to Achilles either (16.828). As Patroclus lays dying, he is cognizant of what has happened to him, as he tells Hector: “deadly fate in league with Apollo killed me” (16.993). Book sixteen continues to present fate as deterministic over the actions of man though some men may be aware that fate (or the gods as agents of fate) have acted upon them. Recall that Hector has confidence that no man can take him before fate allows. Moreover, even Achilles or Euchenor who seemingly can choose their fate, can only do so because fate gives them that choice. 73.      Did Patroclus deserve his fate? On whether Patroclus deserved his fate, many turn to the fact Patroclus disobeyed the advice of Achilles to refrain from assaulting Troy (16.816); however, Homer couples that sentiment with the line that “the will of Zeus will always overpower the will of man” (16.805). Others will turn to Patroclus following the advice of Nestor and construe him donning Achilles’ armor as an act of pride and folly. Most convincing, however, is that Patroclus deserved his fate, because he failed in his mission—he was sent to Troy temper the rage of Achilles and provide him counsel. The intimacy of Patroclus to the narrative is arguably shown by Homer shifting into second person, e.g., “Patroclus, O my rider.”[6] Achilles’ rage, however, animates the events of the Iliad, and the fact it consumed Patroclus bears a certain fittingness and irony. First time readers to the Iliad often find Patroclus’ death unsatisfying. Expecting some magnificent duel between Patroclus and Hector, they are presented a fatalistic and ignoble death (Question 70). The ignominious nature of it seems worse when coupled with Hector gloating over a dying Patroclus—a Patroclus already struck down by a god and stabbed by Euphorbus (16.938). Though Patroclus’ death seems fitting given his role, the manner of his death seems illuminative to the tension between the will of man and fate. On one hand, Zeus pushes him to assault Troy (16.805), and on the other he is chastised by Apollo that it is not his fate to take Troy (16.826). It is noteworthy that Patroclus assaults Troy three times and then a “superhuman” fourth assault all repelled by Apollo (16.821), which is then mirrored at the death of Patroclus—he has three assaults and then on his fourth assault Apollo strikes him down (16.913). The explicit pattern links the two texts as commentaries on man and fate. Apollo simply slapping Patroclus to the ground from behind belittles Patroclus and shows the human frailty before the gods (16.920). It emphasizes the deterministic fatalism that haunts much of Homer’s work within the Iliad. Moreover, on a more granular level, the manner of Patroclus’ death seems to exhibit the frustration of Apollo who is defending a city he knows is doomed. 74.      What else should be observed in book sixteen? It is difficult not to note the manner in which Achilles receives the weeping Patroclus, as he states: “O weeping over the Argives, are you? Seeing them die against their hollow ships, repaid for their offenses?” (16.18). We once again see the indefatigable defense of Ajax retreat seemingly only at the will of Zeus (16.121), and that he knows this to a degree “deep in his heart” (16.143). We may observe that Achilles not only has a special cup from which to offer a libation to Zeus but also that he does so outside any feast or drink for himself (16.299). The advent of Patroclus to the battlefield crying “Slaughter Trojans!” brings about the foretold “dust storm” of Trojans retreating back to Troy (16.440). Similarly, the bloodshed confirms the prophecy of Polydamas to Hector on the dangers of lingering by the Achaean ships (16.472). Once again, we are told that the Achaeans could have most likely taken Troy even without Achilles (16.816). Patroclus chastises Meriones for taunting his enemies, saying: “No time for speeches now, it’s time to fight” (16.732) and then taunts Cebriones, the deceased chariot driver of Hector (16.867). Finally, we should observe that Hector calls the dying Patroclus a “maniac” for obeying the orders of Achilles when in fact Patroclus disobeyed (16.984).[1] Those who may be put off by Hector taunting the dying and then dead Patroclus may compare this Homeric text to the taunting between David and Goliath (I Sam 17). Moreover, note that David strips Goliath of his gear and cuts off his head and brings it to Jerusalem. There is also a parallel between how Hector threatens to treat Patroclus’ body, and Patroclus’ earlier threats against the body of Sarpedon.[2] Fagles, 40.[3] Fagles, 40.[4] Fagles, 40.[5] Fagles, 40.[6] See examples at 16.22, 867, 878, 915, 944, 985.