People Solve Problems

J. Chris White, Co-Founder and CEO of scmBLOX, joined host Jamie Flinchbaugh to explore the critical differences between systems thinking and systems dynamics, and how these approaches can transform supply chain management. As a systems dynamics modeler with 30 years of experience covering operations and supply chains, Chris brought deep expertise to this conversation about solving complex business problems. Chris explained that while many people embrace systems thinking after reading Peter Senge's "The Fifth Discipline," they often miss that Senge was actually a systems dynamicist trained by Jay Forrester, who created systems dynamics. According to Chris, systems thinking provides valuable guidance, but when it comes to actually solving problems, you need the rigor of systems dynamics modeling and simulation. He described systems thinking as appreciating the use of data in decision making, while systems dynamics is doing all the math to generate that data. The conversation revealed how he views systems dynamics as another tool in the problem-solving toolbox. He emphasized that it works best for larger, interconnected problems where you need to see the whole system view. He explained that systems are collections of parts that are interrelated and interconnected, all working together to achieve a goal. As systems become more complex, the relationships between parts begin to dominate, which is where systems dynamics shines. When discussing supply chain management specifically, Chris highlighted how traditional "end-to-end" approaches are actually quite limited. Most companies only track orders from their immediate suppliers to customer delivery, but he pointed out that COVID-19 revealed how interconnected supply chains really are. The disruptions, bullwhip effects, and shortages that dominated news cycles showed that problems happening several tiers upstream can significantly impact your business. Chris used a tree analogy to illustrate this point: there's little value in optimizing the leaves when you should have been on a different branch strategically to begin with. He emphasized that resilience is more of a system phenomenon than an individual company trait, and that understanding supply chains as systems gives you more power to change the future. One of the biggest surprises he encounters when working with clients is how little data they actually need to get started. Unlike statistical models that rely heavily on data, systems dynamics focuses on causal connections and structure. He explained that if you know what you're making and have a bill of materials, your supply chain usually mirrors that structure. This allows companies to begin modeling without perfect visibility into every supplier's capacity or inventory levels. Chris emphasized that when companies optimize only their individual parts of the supply chain, they often create unintended effects that come back to hurt them later. What seems beneficial in the short term can actually cause problems in the long term. The goal is to help companies understand how their decisions impact the entire supply chain system, not just their immediate operations. Throughout the discussion, Chris demonstrated how systems dynamics provides a scientific approach to understanding supply chain vulnerabilities before disruptions occur, whether they're global events like the Suez Canal blockage or local issues like supplier bankruptcies. To learn more about Chris White's work in systems dynamics and supply chain management, visit scmblox.com or connect with him on LinkedIn.

Jim Benson joined host Jamie Flinchbaugh on People Solve Problems to discuss his approach to collaboration and visual management as the foundation for successful Lean and Agile implementations. As Inquisitor at Modus Institute and creator of Personal Kanban, Jim brings a unique perspective on how organizations can remove workplace toxicity while dramatically improving effectiveness. Jim defines collaboration simply yet powerfully: two or more people working toward a common goal with systems in place that allow everyone to act with confidence. This definition cuts through the confusion often created when collaboration gets mixed up with consensus-building or other diluted interpretations. The key insight Jim shared is that confidence drives everything in business, just as consumer confidence drives the free market economy. Jim illustrated this concept through the story of a young procurement agent at Turner Construction who was responsible for purchasing everything from structural steel to toilet paper for a billion-dollar construction project in New York. Initially working from spreadsheets, he had to justify every decision to three levels of management, creating a cycle of criticism and second-guessing that undermined his confidence. When Jim helped implement an obeya with visual controls, everything changed. He could display his work transparently, allowing managers to see when projects were on track, in trouble but manageable, or requiring their expertise. The transformation was remarkable. Instead of commenting on everything he did, managers could now apply their expertise strategically when needed. He could act with confidence, knowing that everyone had visibility into his work and could provide help when necessary rather than criticism after the fact. Jim emphasized that this visual management approach removes toxicity from the workplace by creating clarity around roles, responsibilities, and when intervention is needed. Jim challenged the current trend of CEOs instituting longer work weeks while people are already working at 300% capacity, but only 25% effectiveness. He argued that most knowledge workers are operating far beyond sustainable levels, and the solution isn't more hours but better systems. By creating a better understanding of what people can handle and properly defining work upfront, organizations can increase effective throughput by 200-300% while making work easier and more enjoyable. The conversation touched on problem-solving approaches, where Jim distinguished between everyday operational issues and strategic thinking opportunities. He noted that most bottlenecks in modern business are actually collaborative opportunities that get addressed through non-collaborative means like new software or individual assignments. Instead, these issues often stem from information flowing between people in the wrong formats, which can be fixed simply by understanding what each person in the value stream actually needs. Jim offered a provocative alternative to traditional strategic planning, where leadership teams retreat to develop strategy in isolation. He suggested that companies have exponential strategic value equal to the number of employees raised to the power of the number of employees. Rather than excluding people from strategic planning, Jim advocates for involving everyone in developing strategies, tactics, and measures collaboratively. When people understand how their daily tasks connect to broader strategic goals, achieving corporate objectives becomes much easier. The underlying theme throughout Jim's insights is that most workplace dysfunction stems from people wanting to contribute meaningfully but lacking the systems and clarity to do so effectively. By implementing visual management and collaborative approaches, organizations can tap into this existing motivation while removing the barriers that create frustration and inefficiency. Jim’s work can be explored further at modusinstitute.com, and he can be found on LinkedIn at linkedin.com/in/jimbenson.

Dr. Shannon Flumerfelt, Founder of Charactership Lean Consulting and Endowed Professor of Lean at Oakland University, joined host Jamie Flinchbaugh to discuss her systematic approach to coaching leaders through difficult situations and complex problem-solving challenges. Dr. Flumerfelt shared her framework for handling difficult coaching situations, which begins with understanding whether the challenge stems from external factors or internal issues. She explains that external problems—such as skill gaps or training needs—are often easier to address through coaching and mentoring. However, internal challenges require a deeper analysis using what she calls the "head, heart, and hands" approach: examining a person's knowledge, disposition, and actual capabilities. When faced with complex situations, Dr. Flumerfelt advocates for creating an Ishikawa diagram to break down all contributing factors. She emphasizes the power of co-creating these visual tools with clients, noting that self-reflection becomes most powerful when people can see their challenges mapped out concretely. This approach helps remove emotional drama from the situation and enables more logical, analytical thinking while still respecting people's feelings and perspectives. Regarding prioritization when multiple problems exist, she stresses that the approach must be organic and context-dependent, true to lean principles. She suggests several methods for determining where to start: ensuring strategic alignment with organizational goals through Hoshin Kanri planning, conducting quality function deployment analysis to understand customer requirements, or using Pareto analysis to tackle the most significant causes first. However, she cautions that sometimes the biggest problems are beyond an individual's scope of influence, requiring a more realistic assessment of what can be accomplished. Dr. Flumerfelt also recommends using interrelationship diagrams to identify which issues have the most connections to other problems, as addressing these can create the greatest ripple effect of positive change. The key is understanding your level of power, influence, and authority within the organization and working within those realistic boundaries. When discussing how to tap into people's intuition alongside analytical tools, she acknowledges that lean thinking often appears heavily engineering-focused and black-and-white. However, she emphasizes that successful lean implementation requires understanding the complete framework of lean thinking, not just selecting individual tools. She advocates for using personality assessments like Myers-Briggs to understand team members' strengths and whether they tend toward intuitive or logical approaches. She highlights the concept of social capital as a competitive advantage, referencing Michael Porter's work. She believes organizations drastically underutilize their human potential, comparing it to how individuals only use a small percentage of their brain capacity. When you multiply underutilized brains across an entire organization, the untapped potential becomes enormous. This perspective drives her approach to individualizing and customizing development for each person, recognizing that people aren't robots and have unique strengths and weaknesses that deserve respect. Throughout the conversation, the importance of visual management tools and moving beyond just thinking or journaling to drawing out and visualizing problems and solutions was emphasized. This structured approach helps transform messy, complex situations into manageable challenges that can be systematically addressed. For those interested in experiencing her approach firsthand, Dr. Flumerfelt offers consulting services through Charactership Lean Consulting and teaches in Oakland University's graduate Lean Leadership program—a rare opportunity in higher education. To learn more about Dr. Flumerfelt's work, visit charactershiplean.org or connect with her on LinkedIn 

Nelson Repenning and Don Kieffer joined host Jamie Flinchbaugh to discuss their collaborative book "There's Got to Be a Better Way" and their approach to dynamic work design. Nelson Repenning is the School of Management Distinguished Professor at the MIT Sloan School of Management, while Don Kieffer is a senior lecturer in operations management at MIT Sloan and founder of ShiftGear Work Design. Their partnership represents a unique blend of academic rigor and practical factory floor experience spanning nearly three decades. The conversation began with personal connections, as Jamie noted his long history working with Don during transformation efforts at companies like Harley-Davidson, and his experience as one of Nelson's first students in systems dynamics at MIT. Don shared how Jamie helped translate complex manufacturing concepts into accessible language during their work at Harley-Davidson. The guests explained how their five core principles evolved through years of teaching and practical application. Nelson compared their development process to a stand-up comedian perfecting their act, starting with rough material and refining it through constant testing. The five principles they developed are: solve the right problem, structure for discovery, connect the human chain, regulate for flow, and visualize the work. When discussing the challenge of solving the right problem, Nelson referenced Daniel Kahneman's work on conscious versus automatic thinking. He explained how people often revert to automatic processing under pressure, making structured problem-solving methods essential. Don emphasized how experienced problem solvers can jump to solutions too quickly, bypassing the crucial step of properly defining the problem. The principle of structuring for discovery addresses why organizations should welcome more visible problems rather than hiding them. Don explained that problems reveal weaknesses in systems and create opportunities for innovation and stability. Nelson added that instead of helping people understand complex environments, they focus on structuring environments to be cleaner and more manageable. Regarding connecting the human chain, Nelson emphasized that humans excel at processing uncertainty and ambiguity, particularly in face-to-face communication. He criticized how many organizations use long PowerPoint meetings for information sharing while handling uncertainty through digital messages. Don illustrated this with the frustration of call center scripts that cannot handle unique problems, explaining their concept of "huddles" versus "handoffs" in work design. The discussion of visualizing work highlighted the particular challenges of knowledge work. Don explained that unlike manufacturing, where broken equipment is obvious, knowledge work problems remain hidden. People can be continuously interrupted and overloaded without visible signs. Nelson shared a striking example from Harley-Davidson where the average time to solve problems equaled the months remaining until product launch, regardless of when problems were discovered. Don noted that while executives can easily draw organizational charts, they struggle to map how work actually flows through their organizations. The guests emphasized that simple visualization techniques can yield enormous gains in knowledge work because the dysfunction costs are typically hidden and accepted as normal. Throughout the conversation, both guests stressed the importance of leaders staying connected to actual work rather than remaining distant from operational realities. They advocate for methods that make work visible and create structures that support both stability and continuous innovation. For more information about Nelson Repenning and Don Kieffer's work, visit ShiftGear.com  Find their book "There's Got to Be a Better Way" Nelson can be found on LinkedIn at https://www.linkedin.com/in/nelson-repenning/

Melinda Manente, Process Improvement Coach & Facilitator at GBMP Consulting Group, joins Jamie Flinchbaugh on the People Solve Problems podcast to share her extensive experience in creating transformational change within organizations. With over 30 years of experience at global Fortune 100 companies including Cisco, Parker Hannifin, Intel, and General Electric, Melinda brings valuable insights into developing problem-solving cultures that engage employees at all levels. Melinda emphasizes that meaningful transformation requires both a clear vision and what she calls a "burning platform" - a compelling reason for change that motivates people to step out of their comfort zones. She explains how organizations can benefit from redefining what constitutes a problem, shifting from focusing solely on large, dramatic issues to addressing smaller, daily challenges. This perspective change allows companies to tap into their most valuable resource - their people - by making problem solving part of everyone's daily job content. Throughout the conversation, Melinda shares practical strategies for implementing simple yet effective problem-solving methods that showcase learning, build transparency, and foster team collaboration. She advocates for creating systems that encourage experimentation and rapid learning through a "fail fast" approach, allowing teams to iterate quickly and apply their learnings immediately. Her methodology balances the need for action with thoughtful reflection, creating a culture where problems become opportunities for growth rather than sources of stress. A central theme in Melinda's approach is how the principle of “Respect for People” serves as the foundation for effective problem-solving. She demonstrates how common lean tools like direct observation and 5S become significantly more impactful when implemented within a framework of genuine respect. She shares real-world examples of how this respect-centered approach has transformed organizations she's worked with, creating sustainable change that continues long after formal improvement initiatives end. The conversation concludes with Melinda's insights on the "inside-out" approach to leading organizational change, emphasizing that transformational leaders must first transform themselves before they can effectively guide others. Jamie and Melinda discuss how this self-awareness and personal growth create the authenticity needed to inspire lasting change across an organization. For listeners interested in learning more about Melinda Manente's work on problem-solving and the Respect for People approach, they can visit the GBMP website at https://www.gbmp.org and explore the Respect for People Roadmap, or connect with her on LinkedIn at www.linkedin.com/in/melindamanente.

In this episode of People Solve Problems, host Jamie Flinchbaugh welcomes Dr. Greg Jacobson, CEO and Co-founder of KaiNexus, for an insightful conversation about the intersection of medical training, psychological safety, and continuous improvement culture. Greg's journey into the world of Lean and Kaizen began in 2004 when his department chairman handed him Masaaki Imai's book "Kaizen" and said, "You think like this." As an emergency medicine doctor, Greg was immediately struck by the realization that there was an entire discipline focused on improving systems. He recognized that healthcare had so many operational inefficiencies that applying these principles in the emergency department could yield tremendous results through solving basic problems and capturing low-hanging fruit. The conversation explores how Greg's medical background both helps and hinders systematic thinking about business problems. He explains that physicians are trained with a scientific mindset where every patient encounter resembles an experiment - gathering evidence, forming hypotheses, running tests, and evaluating outcomes. This mirrors the problem-solving methodology used in Lean thinking, making the transition natural for some medical professionals. However, the competitive nature required to succeed in medical school and residency can create fixed mindsets and reduce curiosity, as many doctors become accustomed to being the "alpha dog" who always has the right answers. A significant portion of the discussion focuses on psychological safety and its critical role in enabling improvement. Greg defines psychological safety as "being rewarded for being vulnerable" - whether that's admitting you don't know something, raising concerns about broken processes, or challenging existing systems. Through his experience working in emergency departments across the United States and even New Zealand, he observed that departments where people felt safe to speak up consistently had better outcomes than those where the culture encouraged keeping quiet and just getting the job done. Jamie and Greg explore how technology systems can actually enhance psychological safety by creating a buffer between individuals and problems. When issues are logged in a system rather than raised face-to-face, it shifts the dynamic from personal confrontation to collaborative problem-solving. The issue becomes the common enemy that everyone works together to address, rather than a source of interpersonal tension. Greg notes that rather than reducing human interaction, electronic systems actually increase communication by creating visibility and fostering engagement around improvement opportunities. The conversation turns to habit science and its application to continuous improvement culture. Greg credits reading "The Power of Habit" by Charles Duhigg, "Atomic Habits" by James Clear, and "Tiny Habits" by BJ Fogg with transforming both his personal life and his understanding of organizational change. He explains how KaiNexus applies the habit loop concept - cue, routine, reward - to create interconnected behaviors across different organizational levels. The routine of one person becomes the trigger for another person's habit, creating a web of positive behaviors that sustain improvement culture. When asked about his personal habit transformation, Greg shares how he moved from being an inconsistent squash player who would "demolish his body" once or twice a week to someone who exercises daily. After tearing his ACL in his forties, he used habit science principles to change his identity and create sustainable physical activity routines. Throughout the discussion, Greg emphasizes that KaiNexus is fundamentally about the human transformation that technology enables, not the technology itself. The platform's value comes from people interacting with it in specific ways that foster continuous improvement behaviors across the organization. For more information about Greg's work, visit kainexus.com or connect with him on LinkedIn.

In this episode of People Solve Problems, host Jamie Flinchbaugh welcomes Mark Reich, Senior Coach and Chief Engineer of Strategy at the Lean Enterprise Institute. Mark brings a wealth of experience from his 23 years at Toyota, where he learned and led management systems, followed by 13 years at the Lean Enterprise Institute spreading that knowledge across industries. The conversation centers around Mark's new book "Managing on Purpose," which focuses on Hoshin Kanri, a strategic management methodology that was adopted by Toyota in the early 1960s based on Deming's teachings. Mark explains that Hoshin Kanri goes far beyond typical strategy development that often ends with a PowerPoint presentation to the board. Instead, it creates a comprehensive management system that defines long-term direction, builds both vertical and horizontal alignment throughout the organization, manages annual execution, and develops people's capabilities. Mark emphasizes that the real power of Hoshin Kanri lies in its dual approach to alignment. Vertical alignment ensures that high-level objectives are broken down meaningfully throughout the organization, giving everyone ownership of problems to solve. Horizontal alignment addresses the more challenging task of getting different functions to work together toward broader organizational goals rather than focusing solely on their individual metrics. This requires a cultural shift where leaders must reward people for leading by responsibility rather than authority, encouraging influence across the organization rather than just managing down. The methodology serves as both a strategic framework and a leadership development tool. They compare it to learning soccer through playing the game rather than just practicing drills. Leaders develop crucial skills by working through the complex interpersonal mechanisms of what he calls "catch ball" - the process of building alignment both vertically and horizontally throughout the organization. However, Mark warns that this is high-risk work since it deals with the future of the entire organization, requiring significant investment from top leadership. When discussing how to handle uncertainty and volatility, Mark acknowledges that plans rarely survive contact with reality unchanged. Drawing from military strategist Helmut von Moltke's famous observation about battle plans, he explains that the key lies not in the plan itself but in building the organization's planning capability. Teams that practice planning together can quickly realign when circumstances change. The focus should be on developing the skill of alignment rather than rigidly sticking to any particular plan. Mark identifies rigor as the critical factor that separates successful Hoshin Kanri implementations from failures. This includes rigorous upfront planning, systematic processes for building alignment, and disciplined execution with monthly reviews in visual management spaces. Organizations need to establish standards around the process itself, treating Hoshin Kanri as a systematic approach rather than a one-time exercise. The conversation reveals Mark's perspective that Hoshin Kanri is essentially company-wide problem solving. By framing strategic objectives as problems to solve, organizations can break them down into specific elements that engage everyone from leadership to frontline workers. This creates a unified approach where strategy deployment becomes a systematic way of distributing problem-solving responsibilities throughout the organization. Mark concludes by defending his choice of the word "managing" in his book title, distinguishing management systems from leadership capabilities. While leadership involves developing people and drawing out their best abilities, management involves creating robust systems that allow organizations to function effectively even as leaders move on to new challenges. For more information about Mark's work, visit www.lean.org or connect with him on LinkedIn at www.linkedin.com/in/markareich. Find his book here: www.lean.org/mop

Laurie Harbour, Partner at Wipfli LLP, joined Jamie Flinchbaugh on the People Solve Problems podcast to discuss leadership's critical role in integrating the next generation of manufacturing talent. Laurie, author of Tradition Meets Transformation, brings over 35 years of manufacturing experience helping companies improve efficiency and profitability. Laurie explained that American manufacturing faces a significant generational gap. During the 1990s and early 2000s, parents encouraged their children to pursue four-year degrees rather than manufacturing careers, creating a shortage of workers in the 35-45 age range. This gap widened after the Great Recession further diminished interest in manufacturing careers. The result is an aging manufacturing workforce alongside a gradual influx of younger talent with different skillsets. This talent gap has created serious consequences. Laurie noted that many companies relocated manufacturing to lower-cost regions worldwide partly due to domestic worker shortages. When COVID increased manufacturing demand in North America, companies struggled to find qualified workers, often hiring undertrained temporary labor that negatively impacted quality, delivery, and safety metrics. Many manufacturers now experience 30-40% turnover rates because they fail to engage and retain younger workers. The new generation brings valuable technology skills to manufacturing, Laurie emphasized. Young workers excel at using tools like Excel, programming languages, and Power BI to analyze data effectively. Their efficiency with technology often exceeds that of experienced workers, and they naturally identify process inefficiencies that veterans might overlook. However, they lack the manufacturing process knowledge that experienced workers possess. Laurie advised that successful manufacturers create environments where generations collaborate rather than compete. Some older leaders mistakenly believe younger workers need decades of experience before making meaningful contributions. The best companies instead form cross-generational teams where experienced workers share tribal knowledge while younger staff contribute technological insights. This engagement reduces turnover, as younger workers particularly want to feel their contributions matter. For senior leaders approaching retirement, Laurie recommended embracing transformation rather than coasting on experience. She shared examples of companies that thrived after promoting younger leaders with proper support structures like advisory boards and mentorship programs. For younger manufacturing professionals, Laurie stressed the importance of humility. She observed that successful young leaders recognize they don't need to be the smartest person in the room but must facilitate dialogue and ask good questions. The most effective emerging leaders actively seek mentorship and embrace being uncomfortable as they grow. Laurie remains passionate about revitalizing manufacturing's image, particularly among women who represent 50% of the potential workforce. She's dedicated to educating school counselors and others who might discourage manufacturing careers despite their excellent compensation and technological sophistication. Learn more about Laurie Harbour's work at www.wipfli.com or connect with her on LinkedIn at https://www.linkedin.com/in/laurie-harbour-264a253/.

Kevin Tarrant, Ex-CHRO of WABCO and current President of HR Co-Pilot Consulting, brings 40 years of human capital experience to Jamie Flinchbaugh's People Solve Problems podcast. With a background spanning manufacturing, high tech, software development, and service industries across global organizations, Kevin shares insights from his extensive career, including his last corporate role as Chief Human Resources Officer for Westinghouse Airbrake Company (WABCO). Kevin emphasizes that problem solving has a significant human component beyond just tools and processes. He notes that employees must trust and respect each other while understanding the different strengths each person brings to a problem-solving team. He explains that employees need to directly impact revenue, reduce costs, or contribute to continuous improvement to remain valuable as companies constantly seek efficiency. From an HR perspective, Kevin observes a shift toward hiring for competencies rather than specific experience. He encourages job seekers to demonstrate how they've applied their competencies in different situations rather than simply listing their work history. These competencies—like building relationships, problem-solving, resilience, and adaptability—can transfer across industries. He shares a compelling example from the 2008-2009 financial crisis when WABCO lost 42% of its revenue in one year. Facing potential bankruptcy, the company implemented creative solutions when cash was scarce. They replaced cash bonuses with stock options at the then-low price and conducted "stay interviews" with critical talent to understand what would keep them engaged beyond money. The result: they retained all key employees, and many became millionaires when the stock rebounded. The foundation for this creativity, Kevin explains, came from WABCO's culture which valued diverse thinking and outside-the-box solutions. He warns that many companies claim employees are their greatest asset on their websites, but actual behaviors during tough times reveal the true culture. Kevin recommends that organizations build teams around solving problems and implement processes to understand each member's strengths before tackling challenges. He notes that jobs that don't contribute measurably are at risk. Finally, he emphasizes that successful companies focus on continuous improvement and reinvention. For more information about Kevin Tarrant and his work, visit www.buildwithtact.org or connect with him on LinkedIn at https://www.linkedin.com/in/kevinbtarrant/

Ryan McCormack, Director of Operational Readiness and Optimization at The Wawanesa Mutual Company, joined Jamie Flinchbaugh on the People Solve Problems podcast to discuss his approach to problem-solving in organizations. Ryan has spent over two decades seeking to understand and apply principles that enrich the working lives of people in large organizations, with experience spanning manufacturing, healthcare, management consulting, and insurance. Ryan explained that his role in problem solving shifts depending on circumstances, but primarily involves consulting and facilitation. He leads a team of problem solvers and determines how hands-on or hands-off to be based on the capability of people who own the problem and the complexity of the issue. Ryan learned to start by asking questions to understand these factors before deciding whether to take ownership or develop others' skills. When evaluating his team's capacity to solve problems, Ryan focuses on finding people who have the will and joy for problem-solving—qualities he believes are difficult to teach. His team development strategy centers on a mix of technical problem-solving skills, people skills, and consulting abilities. Rather than keeping people on his team permanently, Ryan prefers to rotate members in and out, giving them skills they can take back to the organization. He measures his career success not by projects completed but by seeing people he's developed go on to leadership roles. For effective collaboration, Ryan emphasized the importance of having a shared problem that everyone is desperate to solve. Without genuine alignment, collaboration becomes artificial. He shared a pragmatic insight that includes actively resistant people on problem-solving teams who have "worked 0% of the time" in his experience. He also highlighted the crucial role of sponsorship, noting that while most leaders believe they're great sponsors, few actually are, and some can't resist taking over the problem. When addressing root cause analysis in knowledge work, he pointed out unique challenges. Unlike manufacturing environments, knowledge work involves "decision factories" where the quality of decisions is rarely measured. Traditional techniques like asking why five times are less effective in these settings. Ryan's approach starts with understanding the decision-making process and establishing what quality looks like. He noted that in complex organizations, almost no one actually understands how decisions are made, making it difficult to assess root causes without first agreeing on what constitutes quality. Ryan lives in Winnipeg, Manitoba with his wife and daughter. Learn more about Ryan's work at https://www.wawanesa.com/ and https://ryanmccormack.substack.com/, or connect with him on LinkedIn at www.linkedin.com/in/rjmccormack.