From laughing gas to chloroform, the podcast explores the brutal history of surgery without anaesthetics. The breakthrough in 1840s with ether and later chloroform changed medical practices. Discover the societal impact, struggles, and innovations in pain management.

Learn about Otto Von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor who unified Germany through ruthless tactics and calculated maneuvers. Delve into the complex political climate of 19th-century Europe, Bismarck's Machiavellian strategies, and his lasting legacy on modern Germany. Explore the challenges of German unification, the Franco-Prussian war, and the controversial domestic policies that shaped Bismarck's legacy.

Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the great 18th Century fashion for epistolary literature. From its first appearance in the 17th Century with writers like Aphra Behn, epistolary fiction, fiction in the form of letters, reached its heyday in the 18th Century with works like Clarissa by Samuel Richardson. At over a million words, it's a contender for the longest English novel. It inspired impassioned followers such as Denis Diderot who described reading Richardson's novels like this: “In the space of a few hours I had been through a host of situations which the longest life can scarcely provide in its whole course. I had heard the genuine language of the passions; I had seen the secret springs of self-interest and self-love operating in a hundred different ways: I had become privy to a multitude of incidents and I felt I had gained in experience.”This sense of the reader gaining a privileged peek into the psychology of the protagonists was a key device of the epistolary form and essential to the development of the novel. Its emphasis on moral instruction also propelled the genre into literary respectability. These novels were a publishing sensation. Philosophers like Rousseau and Montesquieu took up the style, using it to convey their ideas on morality and society.So why was letter writing so important to 18th Century authors? How did this style aid the development of the novel? And why did epistolary literature fall out of favour?With John Mullan, Professor of English at University College London; Karen O’Brien, Professor in English at the University of Warwick; and Brean Hammond, Professor of Modern English Literature at the University of Nottingham.

Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the history of microbiology. We have more microbes in our bodies than we have human cells. We fear them as the cause of disease, yet are reliant on them for processes as diverse as water purification, pharmaceuticals, bread-making and brewing. In the future, we may look to them to save the planet from environmental hazards as scientists exploit their ability to clean up pollution. For microbes are the great recyclers on the earth, processing everything – plants, animals and us. Without microbes life would grind to a halt. How did we first discover these invisible masters of the universe? The development of microscopes in the 17th Century played a key part, but for a while science seemed stuck in this purely observational role. It is only when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch began to manipulate microbes in the lab two hundred years later that stunning advances were made. These breakthroughs led to an understanding of how microbes transform matter, spread disease and also prevent it with the development of antibiotics and vaccines.With John Dupré, Professor of Philosophy of Science at Exeter University; Anne Glover, Professor of Molecular and Cell Biology at Aberdeen University; and Andrew Mendelsohn, Senior Lecturer in the History of Science and Medicine at Imperial College, University of London

Discover the evolution of optics from telescopes unveiling planets to microscopes revealing a tiny universe. Explore the craze for optical illusions, the impact of spectacles on scholarship, and how new lenses revolutionized our perception of the world. From Galileo's stargazing to Newton's spectrum revelation, dive into the history of how we see and understand the universe.

In this podcast, they discuss Joseph Conrad's 'Heart of Darkness', a critique of colonialism and greed. The story follows Marlow's journey in the Belgian Congo, meeting the enigmatic Kurtz. Readers debate the meaning of Kurtz's final words 'the horror'. The novella prompts diverse readings, from psychoanalytical to feminist perspectives.

Melvyn Bragg discusses Karl Popper, a philosopher challenging prevailing ideas in science and politics. Popper emphasized the theory of falsification, advocating for constant challenge of scientific theories. He distinguished good science from 'pseudo sciences' and promoted an Open Society. His ideas influenced politicians globally, sparking debates on the nature of truth in scientific principles.

Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss Genghis Khan, from his humble beginnings to creating the largest land-based empire. They explore his military tactics, ability to unite diverse peoples, and ruthless conquests. The episode covers his early life, military engagements, empire building, and legacy of uniting cultures. Genghis Khan's strategic thinking, discipline in warfare, and brutal tactics are highlighted, shedding light on his impressive legacy in history.

Delving into the life of Archimedes, the Greek mathematician known for shouting 'Eureka!' His innovations in pulleys and levers led to formidable weapons, while his true love remained pure mathematics. Learn about his calculation of Pi, creation of a new numerical system, and enigmatic legacy impacting the scientific revolution.

Exploring the Jesuits' influence from education to art, their global reach in missions, their suppression and restoration. Learn about Loyola's spiritual journey, their role in the Catholic Church, and their impact on science and culture. Discover their patronage of the arts, adaptability in foreign lands, success in education, and their eventual re-establishment after suppression.