80: Everyone's a Critic

In 'What Is Art?', Tolstoy argues that art is a means of communicating feelings to others, with the ultimate goal of uniting people in shared emotions. He rejects the traditional aesthetic view that art is based on beauty, instead emphasizing that true art must serve the progress and improvement of humanity. Tolstoy believes that art should be accessible to all people, not just the privileged, and that it should foster empathy and understanding. He criticizes art that is partisan or serves the interests of the ruling class, advocating for art that promotes universal values and social justice.

Great Expectations is a classic novel by Charles Dickens that chronicles the life of Pip, a young orphan living in the marshes of Kent. The story begins with Pip's encounter with an escaped convict, Abel Magwitch, which sets off a chain of events that changes his life. Pip inherits a large fortune from an anonymous benefactor, which he uses to become a gentleman. However, his journey is marked by his unrequited love for Estella, the adopted daughter of the eccentric Miss Havisham, and his eventual discovery that his benefactor is not who he expected. The novel explores themes of social class, love, rejection, and the search for true identity, set against the backdrop of early 19th-century England.

Candide, written by Voltaire, is a satirical novel that critiques metaphysical optimism, particularly the philosophy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. The story revolves around Candide, a naive and optimistic young man who is expelled from his home after an illicit affair with the baron's daughter, Cunégonde. Candide and his companions, including his tutor Pangloss, experience a series of horrific events such as wars, earthquakes, slavery, and other atrocities. Despite these hardships, Pangloss persists in his belief that 'all is for the best in this best of all possible worlds. ' The novel ultimately concludes with Candide and his friends settling on a farm in Turkey, where they find happiness by focusing on practical, everyday tasks rather than philosophical speculations. Voltaire uses satire to lampoon various aspects of 18th-century society, including science, philosophy, religion, and government.

In this memoir, Azar Nafisi recounts her life in Iran after the 1979 revolution, focusing on her secret book club where she and seven female students discussed forbidden Western classics such as works by Vladimir Nabokov, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Henry James, and Jane Austen. The book interweaves Nafisi's personal experiences, including her expulsion from the University of Tehran for refusing to wear the veil, her teaching career, and the impact of the Iran-Iraq War on Iranian society. It explores themes of personal freedom, social obligations, tyranny, and the transformative power of literature in the face of oppression.

C. S. Lewis's "Preface to Paradise Lost" serves as an introduction to John Milton's epic poem. It delves into the nature of epic poetry, distinguishing between primary and secondary epics. Lewis explores the concept of virtue and its portrayal in epic literature, examining Milton's theological perspectives within a contemporary context. The preface offers valuable insights into understanding the structure and themes of Paradise Lost, enriching the reader's experience. It's a crucial text for understanding Milton's work and the broader landscape of epic poetry.

King Lear, written by William Shakespeare around 1604-1606, is a tragedy that follows the story of King Lear, who decides to retire and divide his kingdom among his three daughters: Goneril, Regan, and Cordelia. The division is based on the eloquence of their declarations of love for him. However, Lear's youngest and favorite daughter, Cordelia, refuses to flatter him and is disinherited. The play unfolds with Lear's descent into madness, the betrayal by his elder daughters, and the subplot involving the Earl of Gloucester and his sons. Ultimately, the play ends in tragedy with the deaths of Lear, Cordelia, and several other main characters, highlighting themes of deception, power, and the consequences of poor judgment.

Published in 1945, 'Brideshead Revisited' is a satirical novel by Evelyn Waugh that chronicles the lives of the aristocratic Flyte family from the 1920s through to the Second World War. The story is narrated by Captain Charles Ryder, who forms a deep friendship with Sebastian Flyte at Oxford University. The novel delves into the complexities of relationships, the pervasive influence of the Catholic Church on the Flyte family, and the gradual decay of the aristocratic way of life. It explores themes of faith, love, and the search for meaning in a world undergoing significant change. Waugh's work is noted for its elegant prose, witty dialogue, and a profound exploration of the human condition.

The Aeneid, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, is a monumental work of classical literature. It follows the journey of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, as he navigates from the ruins of Troy to Italy, where he is destined to found the city of Lavinium, a precursor to Rome. The poem is divided into 12 books, with the first six detailing Aeneas' wanderings and the second six describing the war in Italy against the Latins. The epic incorporates various legends and mythological elements, glorifying traditional Roman virtues and legitimizing the Julio-Claudian dynasty. It explores themes such as duty, fate, and the relationship between the individual and society, and has had a profound influence on Western literature.

The novel, presented as the posthumously published memoirs of Humbert Humbert, explores themes of obsession, pedophilia, and the manipulation of reality. Humbert, a European intellectual and pedophile, becomes infatuated with Dolores Haze, whom he kidnaps and sexually abuses after marrying her mother. The narrative delves into the complex and disturbing relationship between Humbert and Lolita, highlighting issues of morality, solipsism, and the erasure of Lolita's independent identity. The book is known for its eloquent but deceptive narrator and its exploration of delusion, coercion, and cruelty.

Published in 1878, 'Anna Karenina' is a novel by Leo Tolstoy that delves into the complexities of Russian society in the late 19th century. The story centers around the extramarital affair between Anna Karenina, a married socialite, and Count Alexei Kirillovich Vronsky, which scandalizes the social circles of Saint Petersburg. The novel also follows the parallel story of Konstantin Levin, a wealthy landowner, and his struggles with marriage, faith, and managing his estate. Tolstoy explores a wide range of themes including love, loyalty, betrayal, hypocrisy, and the differences between rural and urban life. The novel is known for its detailed character development and its profound commentary on the human condition.

The Death of Ivan Ilych, published in 1886, is a novella by Leo Tolstoy that delves into the existential crisis of its protagonist. Ivan Ilych, a judge who has lived a life conforming to societal norms and expectations, is diagnosed with a terminal illness. As his health deteriorates, he is forced to confront the emptiness and superficiality of his life. The novella explores themes of mortality, the search for meaning, and the nature of authentic living. Through Ivan's journey, Tolstoy poses critical questions about the purpose of life and the inevitability of death, prompting readers to reflect on their own existence and the values they uphold. Despite the pain and fear associated with his illness, Ivan ultimately finds a sense of peace and understanding in his final moments.

Published in 1854, 'Walden; Or, Life in the Woods' is a series of 18 essays that reflect Thoreau's experiences living in a small cabin near Walden Pond from July 1845 to September 1847. The book is a personal declaration of independence, a social experiment, and a voyage of spiritual discovery. Thoreau details his life in the woods, discussing the construction of his cabin, his daily activities, and his philosophical reflections on economy, social relations, and the importance of living in harmony with nature. The work is considered a cornerstone of American literature and a foundational text in the Transcendentalist movement, emphasizing the benefits of a simplified lifestyle and the importance of individual freedom and self-reliance.

In 'The Western Canon: The Books and School of the Ages', Harold Bloom defends the concept of the Western literary canon by discussing 26 writers whom he considers central to it. Bloom argues against what he terms the 'school of resentment', which includes feminist, Marxist, and post-structuralist literary criticisms that he believes threaten the aesthetic values of literature. He emphasizes the importance of originality and the 'anxiety of influence' in literary works, with a particular focus on the impact of Shakespeare on subsequent literature. The book is divided into sections that trace the development of the Western canon through different ages, from the Theocratic Age to the Chaotic Age of the 20th century.

Published in 1667, 'Paradise Lost' is an epic poem in blank verse that follows the biblical story of the Fall of Man. The poem begins in medias res, detailing the descent of Satan and his followers into Hell after their rebellion against God. It explores two main narrative arcs: one focusing on Satan's actions and the other on Adam and Eve's story in the Garden of Eden. The poem delves into themes such as free will, obedience, revenge, and pride, and it portrays the complex characters of Satan, Adam, and Eve. Milton's work is known for its rich language, classical structure, and profound theological and philosophical insights.

Set during the Napoleonic Wars, 'War and Peace' follows the lives of several Russian aristocratic families, including the Bezukhovs, the Rostovs, and the Bolkonskys. The novel spans from 1805 to 1820 and is known for its realistic detail and psychological analysis. It explores the impact of Napoleon's invasion of Russia on the characters and society, delving into themes of love, family, war, and personal growth. The novel includes historical events such as the Battle of Austerlitz, the Treaties of Tilsit, and the French invasion of Russia, intertwining historical and fictional elements.