Eugene Finkel, Kenneth H. Keller Professor at Johns Hopkins and author of "Intent to Destroy," dives deep into the historical struggle for Ukrainian identity against Russian domination. He unpacks Russia's persistent oppression tactics since the 19th century, including cultural erasure and famine. Unlike past attempts, Ukraine's recent unification against aggression marks a significant shift. The conversation also touches on the Cossack legacy, the impact of Soviet policies, and the evolution of radical nationalism, prompting a reevaluation of historical narratives.
Russian domination of Ukraine has historical roots dating back to the Kievan Rus, influencing current geopolitical tensions.
The emergence of Cossack identity and its role in shaping Ukrainian nationalism reflects a complex struggle for autonomy.
Catastrophic events like the Holodomor contributed to a deep-seated Ukrainian consciousness, shaping modern nationalism and identity.
Deep dives
Historical Roots of Russian-Ukrainian Tensions
The historical struggle for control over Ukraine dates back to the Kievan Rus, the medieval state of Eastern Slavs, which encompassed much of modern Ukraine and parts of Russia. Russian rulers have long viewed dominating Ukraine as essential to their identity, engaging in cultural destruction and oppression throughout history. The Mongol invasion and the subsequent sacking of Kyiv allowed Moscow to rise as a prominent power, leading to a transition of perceived authority from Kyiv to Moscow. This transition, steeped in ideology, posited that power was somehow 'sacral' and transferred during periods of upheaval, establishing a narrative that continues to influence Russian attitudes toward Ukraine today.
Emergence of Cossack Identity
After the decline of Kievan Rus, the territory of Ukraine became a contested region between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Russian powers. This led to the emergence of the Cossacks, a group of semi-independent warriors who thrived on the borderlands, seeking freedom and engaging in rebellions against Polish authority. The Cossacks developed a unique social status that allowed people from various backgrounds to unite under a common identity focused on military prowess and independence. This Cossack identity played a significant role in the formation of Ukrainian political identity, though it originally lacked an ethnic basis.
Impact of Russian Nationalism on Ukraine
During the 19th century, both Russian nationalism and the beginnings of Ukrainian nationalism emerged, but these movements gradually diverged, leading to mutual hostility. Russian nationalists began viewing Ukrainians as an integral but lesser part of the Russian identity, referring to the region as Little Russia and its people as Little Russians. This perception intensified in response to Polish uprisings and external threats, which fueled anxieties about regional control and the need for Russification. As a result, Ukrainian cultural and linguistic expressions were systematically repressed, leading many Ukrainians to either assimilate into Russian identity or develop a separate Ukrainian political consciousness.
The Role of Famine and Oppression
The catastrophic famines in Ukraine in the early 20th century, notably the Holodomor, profoundly impacted Ukrainian society and identity. During the Civil War and subsequent Soviet policies, millions faced starvation as grain was forcibly exported to feed urban areas in Russia. The trauma of these famines weakened Ukrainian identity and drew a stark contrast between the experiences of rural and urban populations. As the Ukrainian identity became increasingly linked to historical grievances, this suffering became a critical element shaping modern Ukrainian nationalism.
The Dichotomy of Russian and Ukrainian Identities
As the Soviet Union collapsed in the early 1990s, differentiation between Russian and Ukrainian identities became more pronounced, yet many Russian liberals struggled to adapt their views. While some Russian intellectuals saw Ukrainian independence as a rejection of a shared heritage, they failed to establish a coherent vision for Russian national identity after the empire's fall. This oversight contributed to a resurgence of imperialist attitudes among Russian leaders, particularly under Putin, as they sought to recapture lost territories. To move forward, the conflict necessitates a reevaluation of Russia's historical identity and its convoluted relationship with Ukraine, as deeply entrenched ideas regarding identity continue to foster cycles of violence.
Many were shocked in February 2022 by the Russian attempt to seize Kyiv and decapitate the Ukranian regime, thereby ending the war begun in 2014. But this was simply the latest in a long series of Russian attempts to “divide and oppress Ukraine.” Since the 19th century, dominating Ukraine has been a cornerstone of Russia’s national identity. To prevent Ukraine from choosing an alternative, Russian rulers of all ideological varieties have used not only history and cultural destruction as their methods, but executions, deportations, and famine. It is not very surprising, argues my guest Eugene Finkel, that these tools of oppression should be so readily picked up by yet another Russian autocrat. What makes this moment different is that for the first time in its history Ukraine has overcome its internal divisions and united in favor of independence from Russia.
Eugene Finkel is Kenneth H. Keller Professor of International Affairs at the Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies. The author or coauthor of three previous books, his writing has appeared in the Washington Post, Los Angeles Times, and Foreign Affairs. He was born in Lviv, Ukraine, and lives in Bologna, Italy. His most recent book is Intent to Destroy: Russia’s Two Hundred Year Quest to Dominate Ukraine.
For Further Investigation
Eugene Finkel's previous books include Ordinary Jews: Choice and Survival during the Holocaust (Princeton University Press, 2017)
This conversation is related in some way to a surprising number of previous podcasts. One with Chris Miller on the perennial Russian pivot to Asia that always fails; you can hear a little about the Russian wars against the Turks for Ukraine in Episode 284, when I discussed the career of Russia's greatest general with Alex Mikaberidze; something about Ukrainian grain in my conversation with Scott Nelson about his book Oceans of Grain; a long conversation about Josef Pilsudski, founder of modern Poland; and Episode 348, about the Russian Civil War.
And of course my conversation with Michael Kimmage in Episode 354 about the immediate antecedents of the Ukrainian War. Listeners who believe in comparing arguments–and you should all believe in that–ought to listen to Kimmage immediately after digesting this podcast.
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