Depth of Anesthesia

For our first episode of 2020, we investigate claims related to the application of cricoid pressure. Claim 1. Cricoid pressure reduces the risk of pulmonary aspiration. Claim 2. Landmark technique is able to accurately identify the cricoid cartilage. Claim 3. Cricoid pressure should be routinely applied in all rapid-sequence intubations. Our guest today is Dr. Jerome Crowley, an adult cardiothoracic anesthesiologist and intensivist at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References Cricoid pressure to control regurgitation of stomach contents during induction of anaesthesia. Sellick BA. Lancet. 1961;2:404–406. Smith KJ, Dobranowski J, Yip G, Dauphin A, Choi PT. Cricoid pressure displaces the esophagus: an observational study using magnetic resonance imaging. Anesthesiology. 2003;99:60–64. Rice MJ, Mancuso AA, Gibbs C, Morey TE, Gravenstein N, Deitte LA. Cricoid pressure results in compression of the postcricoid hypopharynx: the esophageal position is irrelevant. Anesth Analg. 2009;109:1546–1552 Lee D, Czech AJ, Elriedy M, Nair A, El-Boghdadly K, Ahmad I. A multicentre prospective cohort study of the accuracy of conventional landmark technique for cricoid localisation using ultrasound scanning. Anaesthesia. 2018;73:1229–1234. Smith CE, Boyer D. Cricoid pressure decreases ease of tracheal intubation using fiberoptic laryngoscopy (WuScope system. Can J Anesth. 2002;49:614–619. The Effectiveness of Cricoid Pressure for Occluding the Esophageal Entrance in Anesthetized and Paralyzed Patients: An Experimental and Observational Glidescope Study. Anesth Analg. 2014 Mar;118(3):580-6. doi: 10.1213/ANE.0000000000000068. Effect of cricoid pressure compared with a sham procedure in the rapid sequence induction of anesthesia: the IRIS randomized clinical trial. Birenbaum A, Hajage D, Roche S, et al; IRIS Investigators Group. JAMA Surg. 2019;154:9–17. Flucker CJ, Hart E, Weisz M, Griffiths R, Ruth M. The 50-millilitre syringe as an inexpensive training aid in the application of cricoid pressure. Eur J Anaesthesiol 2000; 17: 443–447. __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate the claim that a subjective assessment is an accurate way to measure functional capacity. We also explore whether self-reported ability to climb two flights of stairs is the best subjective method to assess functional capacity and whether exercise tolerance greater than or equal to 4 metabolic equivalents predicts the risk of perioperative complications in any major non-cardiac surgery. Our guests today are Dr. Elisa Walsh and Dr. Laurie Shapiro of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. __ References Wijeysundera et al. Assessment of functional capacity before major non-cardiac surgery: an international, prospective cohort study. Lancet. 2018; 391: p2631-2640. Fleisher et al. 2014 ACC/AHA guideline on perioperative cardiovascular evaluation and management of patients undergoing noncardiac surgery: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014; 130: e278-e333. Hlatky et al. A brief self-administered questionnaire to determine functional capacity (the Duke Activity Status Index). Am J Cardiol. 1989 Sep 15;64(10):651-4. Wang et al. Plasma natriuretic peptide levels and the risk of cardiovascular events and death. N Engl J Med. 2004;350(7):655. Kistrop et al. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, C-reactive protein, and urinary albumin levels as predictors of mortality and cardiovascular events in older adults. JAMA. 2005;293(13):1609. Struthers et al. The potential to improve primary prevention in the future by using BNP/N-BNP as an indicator of silent 'pancardiac' target organ damage. European Heart Journal, Volume 28, Issue 14, July 2007, Pages 1678–1682 Carliner et al. Routine preoperative exercise testing patients undergoing major noncardiac surgery. Am J Cardiol 1985;56;51-58. Sgura et al. Supine exercise capacity identifies patients at low risk for perioperative cardiovascular events and predicts long-term survival. Am J Medicin 2000; 108. Kistorp et al. N-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, C-reactive protein, and urinary albumin levels as predictors of mortality and cardiovascular events in older adults. JAMA. 2005;293(13):1609. Reilly et al. Self-reported exercise tolerance and the risk of serious perioperative complications. Arch Intern Med. 1999 Oct 11;159(18):2185-92. Melon et al. Validated questionnaire vs physicians' judgment to estimate preoperative exercise capacity. JAMA Intern Med. 2014 Sep;174(9):1507-8. Weinstein et al. Comparison of Preoperative Assessment of Patient's Metabolic Equivalents (METs) Estimated from History versus Measured by Exercise Cardiac Stress Testing. Anesthesiol Res Pract. 2018; 2018: 5912726. Ryding et al. Prognostic Value of Brain Natriuretic Peptide in Noncardiac Surgery: A Meta-analysis. Anesthesiology. 8 2009, Vol.111, 311-319. Wright et al. Examining Risk: A Systematic Review of Perioperative Cardiac Risk Prediction Indices. Mayo Clin Proc. 2019. Wiklund RA, Stein HD, Rosenbaum SH. Activities of daily living and cardiovascular complications following elective, noncardiac surgery. Yale J Biol Med 2001; 74: 75–87 Ainsworth BE, Haskell WL, Herrmann SD, Meckes N, Bassett Jr DR, Tudor-Locke C, Greer JL, Vezina J, Whitt- Glover MC, Leon AS. 2011 Compendium of Physical Activities: a second update of codes and MET values. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 2011;43(8):1575-1581. __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate the claim that norepinephrine is not safe for peripheral administration. Our guests today are Dr. Katarina Ruscic and Dr. Jamie Sparling of the Critical Care Division of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References Cardenas‐Garcia J, Schaub KF, Belchikov YG, Narasimhan M, Koenig SJ, Mayo PH, Peripheral Administration of VM. J. Hosp. Med 2015;9;581-585. doi:10.1002/jhm.2394 Hasanin AM, Amin SA, Agiza NA, Elsayed MK, Refaa S, Hussein HA, Rouk TI, Alrahmany M. Elsayad M. Norepinephrine Infusion for Preventing Postspinal Anesthesia Hypotension during Cesarean Delivery Anesthesiology 2019; 130:55–62. Medlej K, Kazzi AA, El Hajj Chehade A. Complications from Administration of Vasopressors Through Peripheral Venous Catheters: An Observational Study. The Journal of emergency medicine. 2018; 54(1):47-53. Ngan Kee, WD A random-allocation graded dose-response study of norepinephrine and phenylephrine for treating hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesthesiology 2017; 127:934-41 Ngan Kee WD, Lee SWY, Ng FF, Khaw KS. Prophylactic norepinephrine infusion for preventing hypotension during spinal anesthesia for cesarean delivery. Anesth Analg. 2018;126:1989–1994. Permpikul C, Tongyoo S, Viarasilpa T, Trainarongsakul T, Chakorn T, Udompanturak S. Early Use of Norepinephrine in Septic Shock Resuscitation (CENSER) : A Randomized Trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2019 Parienti JJ, Mongardon N, Mégarbane B. Intravascular Complications of Central Venous Catheterization by Insertion Site. The New England journal of medicine. 2015; 373(13):1220-9. Ricard J, Salomon L, Boyer A, et al. Central or peripheral catheters for initial venous access of ICU patients. Crit Care Med 2013;41(9):2108-2115. __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate the claim that administering ketorolac (Toradol) increases bleeding and should be avoided in surgeries for which there is concern for bleeding. Claim 1. Administration of intraoperative ketorolac increases the bleeding time due to platelet inhibition Claim 2. Increased bleeding time translates to higher rate of surgical bleeding Claim 3. The magnitude of bleeding propensity attributable to ketorolac is clinically relevant Our guest today is Dr. Jamie Sparling of the Critical Care Division of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References Bailey R, Sinha C, Burgess LP. Ketorolac tromethamine and hemorrhage in tonsillectomy: A prospective, randomized, double-blind study. Laryngoscope 1997;107:166–169. Cassinelli EH, Dean CL, Garcia RM, Furey CG, Bohlman HH. Ketorolac use for postoperative pain management fol- lowing lumbar decompression surgery: A prospective, ran- domized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 2008;33:1313–1317. Gobble RM, Hoang HL, Kachniarz B, Orgill DP. Ketorolac does not increase perioperative bleeding: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 2014; 133(3): 741-755 Singer AJ, Mynster CJ, McMahon BJ. The effect of IM ketoro- lac tromethamine on bleeding time: A prospective, interven- tional, controlled study. Am J Emerg Med. 2003;21:441–443. Strom BL, Berlin JA, Kinman JL, et al. Parenteral ketoro- lac and risk of gastrointestinal and operative site bleed- ing: A postmarketing surveillance study. JAMA 1996;275: 376–382. __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate claims about reversal of neuromuscular blockade. Claim 1. Location of train-of-four assessment matters Claim 2. Train-of-four is unnecessary with "sufficient" time from the last dose Claim 3. Fade can be discriminated by tactile assessment Our guest today is Dr. Daniel Saddawi-Konefka of the Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References Arain Sr, Kern S, Ficke DJ, Ebert TJ. Variability of duration of action of neuromuscular blocking drugs in elderly patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2005;49:312–315. Caldwell JE. Reversal of residual neuromuscular block with neostigmine at one to four hours after a single intubating dose of vecuronium. Anesth Analg 1995;80:1168 –74 JØRGEN VIBY-MOGENSEN, NIELS HENRIK JENSEN, JENS ENGBAEK, HELLE ØRDING, LENE THEIL SKOVGAARD, BENT CHRAEMMER-JØRGENSEN; Tactile and Visual Evaluation of the Response to Train-of-four Nerve Stimulation. Anesthesiology1985;63(4):440-442. Stephan R. Thilen, Bradley E. Hansen, Ramesh Ramaiah, Christopher D. Kent, Miriam M. Treggiari, Sanjay M. Bhananker; Intraoperative Neuromuscular Monitoring Site and Residual Paralysis. Anesthesiology 2012;117(5):964-972. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31826f8fdd. __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate the claim that the sniffing position aligns the "axes" and is the optimal position for viewing the glottic opening. Our guest is Dr. Keith Baker, Vice Chair for Education and a thoracic anesthesiologist at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References El-Orbany M.I., Getachew Y.B., Joseph N.J., Salem M.R., and Friedman M.: Head elevation improves laryngeal exposure with direct laryngoscopy. J Clin Anesth 2015; 27: pp. 153-158 Frédéric Adnet, Christophe Baillard, Stephen W. Borron, Christophe Denantes, Laurent Lefebvre, Michel Galinski, Carmen Martinez, Michel Cupa, Frédéric Lapostolle; Randomized Study Comparing the "Sniffing Position" with Simple Head Extension for Laryngoscopic View in Elective Surgery Patients. Anesthesiology 2001;95(4):836-841. Frédéric Adnet, Stephen W. Borron, Jean Luc Dumas, Frédéric Lapostolle, Michel Cupa, Claude Lapandry; Study of the "Sniffing Position" by Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Anesthesiology 2001;94(1):83-86. Hochman II, Zeitels SM, Heaton JT. Analysis of the forces and position required for direct laryngoscopic exposure of the anterior vocal cords. Ann Otol Rhino Laryngol 1999; 108 Levitan R.M., Mechem C.C., Ochroch E.A., et al: Head-elevated laryngoscopy position: improving laryngeal exposure during laryngoscopy by increasing head elevation. Ann Emerg Med 2003; 41: pp. 322-330 __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate pro and con positions on preoperative anxiolytics. Pro claim: Preoperative anxiolytics improve patient satisfaction. Con claim: Preoperative anxiolytics delay recovery and discharge. My guest is Dr. Matthew Vanneman, an attending cardiothoracic anesthesiologist at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Recommend a guest or topic at depthofanesthesia@gmail.com or tweet us @DepthAnesthesia. Rate us on iTunes. -- References C. Boncyk, A. S. Hess, A. Gaskell, J. Sleigh, R. D. Sanders, on behalf of the ConsCIOUS group, Does benzodiazepine administration affect patient satisfaction: a secondary analysis of the ConCIOUS study, BJA: British Journal of Anaesthesia, Volume 118, Issue 2, February 2017, Pages 266–267, https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aew456 Kain ZN, Sevarino FB, Rinder C, et al. Preoperative anxiolysis and postoperative recovery in women undergoing abdominal hysterectomy. Anesthesiology 2001;94:415–22. Maurice-Szamburski A, Auquier P, Viarre-Oreal V, et al; for the PremedX Study Investigators. Effect of sedative premedication on patient experience after general anesthesia: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.1108 Richardson MG, Wu CL, Hussain A. Midazolam premedication increases sedation but does not prolong discharge times after brief outpatient general anesthesia for laparoscopic tubal sterilization. Anesth Analg. 1997;85:301–5. van Vlymen JM, Sá Rêgo MM, White PF. Benzodiazepine premedication: can it improve outcome in patients undergoing breast biopsy procedures? Anesthesiology 1999; 90:740. Walker KJ, Smith AF. Premedication for anxiety in adult day surgery. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2009, Issue 4. Art. No.: CD002192. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD002192.pub2. __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate the claim that an alternative antibiotic to cephalosporins (e.g., cefazolin) should be selected for penicillin-allergic patients in the perioperative setting. Claim 1. Alternative antibiotics may be as efficacious in preventing surgical site infections Claim 2. Cephalosporins (e.g., cefazolin) may be unsafe due to cross-reactivity. Claim 3. Administering cephalosporins (e.g., cefazolin) may be against the standard of care. My guest this week is Dr. Matthew Vanneman, an attending cardiothoracic anesthesiologist at the Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References Beltran RJ, Kako H, Chovanec T, Ramesh A, Bissonnette B, Tobias JD. Penicillin allergy and surgical prophylaxis: cephalo- sporin cross-reactivity risk in a pediatric tertiary care center. J Pediatr Surg. 2015;50:856–859. Blumenthal KG, Ryan EE, Li Y, Lee H, Kuhlen JL, Shenoy ES. The impact of a reported penicillin allergy on surgical site infec- tion risk. Clin Infect Dis. 2018;66:329–336. Blumenthal KG et al. Risk of meticillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Clostridium difficile in patients with a documented penicillin allergy: Population based matched cohort study. BMJ 2018 Jun 27; 361:k2400. Jeffres M, Hall-Lipsy E, King ST, Cleary J. Systematic Review of Professional Liability when Prescribing Β-Lactams for Patients with a Known Penicillin Allergy. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2017;4(Suppl 1):S341. Published 2017 Oct 4. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofx163.812 Macy E, Contreras R. Adverse reactions associated with oral and parenteral use of cephalosporins: a retrospective population-based analysis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2015;135:745-752.e745. Petz LD. Immunologic reactions of humans to cephalosporins. Postgrad Med J. 1971;47:Suppl:64-9. Petz LD. Immunologic cross-reactivity between penicillins and cephalosporins: a review. J Infect Dis 1978;137:S74-9. Pichichero ME. A review of evidence supporting the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendation for prescribing cepha- losporin antibiotics for penicillin-allergic patients. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1048–1057. Zagursky RJ, Pichichero ME. Cross-reactivity in β-lactam allergy. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract. 2018;6:72–81.e1. __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate the claim that morphine causes more nausea than hydromorphone. My guest is Dr. Daniel Saddawi-Konefka, program director of the Anesthesia Residency Program at Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References Felden L, Walter C, Harder S, Treede RD, Kayser H, Drover D, Geisslinger G, Lotsch J. Comparative clinical effects of hydromorphone and morphine: a meta-analysis. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2011; 107(3): 319-328 Wirz S, Wartenberg HC, Nadstawek J. Less nausea, emesis, and constipation comparing hydromorphone and morphine? A prospective open-labeled investigation on cancer pain, Support Care Cancer , 2008, vol. 16 (pg. 999-1009) Hong D, Flood P, Diaz G. The side effects of morphine and hydromorphone patient-controlled analgesia. Anesth Analg. 2008;107:1384–9 Chang, AK, Bijur, PE, Meyer, RH, Kenny, MK, Solorzano, C, and Gallagher, EJ. Safety and efficacy of hydromorphone as an analgesic alternative to morphine in acute pain: a randomized clinical trial. Ann Emerg Med. 2006; 48: 164–172 Chang, AK, Bijur, PE, Baccelieri, A, and Gallagher, EJ. Efficacy and safety profile of a single dose of hydromorphone compared with morphine in older adults with acute, severe pain: a prospective, randomized, double-blind clinical trial. Am J Geriatr Pharmacother. 2009; 7: 1–10 __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.

We investigate the claim that mask ventilation should be "checked" or "confirmed" before administering paralytics. My guest is Dr. Daniel Saddawi-Konefka, program director of the Anesthesia Residency Program at Massachusetts General Hospital. Full show notes available at depthofanesthesia.com. Connect with us @DepthAnesthesia on Twitter or depthofanesthesia@gmail.com. Thanks for listening! Please rate us on iTunes and share with your colleagues. Music by Stephen Campbell, MD. -- References Chingmuh Lee, Jonathan S. Jahr, Keith A. Candiotti, Brian Warriner, Mark H. Zornow, Mohamed Naguib; Reversal of Profound Neuromuscular Block by Sugammadex Administered Three Minutes after Rocuronium: A Comparison with Spontaneous Recovery from Succinylcholine. Anesthesiology 2009;110(5):1020-1025. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e31819dabb0. Drummond GB, Park GR. Arterial oxygen saturation before intubation of the trachea. An assessment of oxygenation techniques. Br J Anaesth 1984; 56:987. Benjamin J. Dixon, John B. Dixon, Jennifer R. Carden, Anthony J. Burn, Linda M. Schachter, Julie M. Playfair, Cheryl P. Laurie, Paul E. O'Brien; Preoxygenation Is More Effective in the 25° Head-up Position Than in the Supine Position in Severely Obese Patients: A Randomized Controlled Study. Anesthesiology 2005;102(6):1110-1115. Jense HG, Dubin SA, Silverstein PI, O'Leary-Escolas U. Effect of obesity on duration of apnea in anesthetized humans. Anesth Analg 1991; 72: 89–93. Min, Se-Hee & Im, Hyunjae & Rim Kim, Bo & Yoon, Susie & Bahk, Jae-Hyon & Seo, Jeong-Hwa. (2019). Randomized Trial Comparing Early and Late Administration of Rocuronium Before and After Checking Mask Ventilation in Patients With Normal Airways. Anesthesia & Analgesia. 1. 10.1213/ANE.0000000000004060. R. Sirian, Jonathan Wills, Physiology of apnoea and the benefits of preoxygenation, Continuing Education in Anaesthesia Critical Care & Pain, Volume 9, Issue 4, August 2009, Pages 105–108, https://doi.org/10.1093/bjaceaccp/mkp018 Roland Amathieu, Xavier Combes, Widad Abdi, Loutfi El Housseini, Ahmed Rezzoug, Andrei Dinca, Velislav Slavov, Sébastien Bloc, Gilles Dhonneur; An Algorithm for Difficult Airway Management, Modified for Modern Optical Devices (Airtraq Laryngoscope; LMA CTrach ™): A 2-Year Prospective Validation in Patients for Elective Abdominal, Gynecologic, and Thyroid Surgery. Anesthesiology 2011;114(1):25-33. doi: 10.1097/ALN.0b013e318201c44f. Sachin Kheterpal, Richard Han, Kevin K. Tremper, Amy Shanks, Alan R. Tait, Michael O'Reilly, Thomas A. Ludwig; Incidence and Predictors of Difficult and Impossible Mask Ventilation. Anesthesiology 2006;105(5):885-891. Sachdeva R Kannan TR Mendonca C Patteril M. Evaluation of changes in tidal volume during mask ventilation following administration of neuromuscular blocking drugs. Anaesthesia 2014; 69: 826–31 __ By listening to this podcast, you agree not to use information as medical advice to treat any medical condition in either yourself or others, including but not limited to patients that you are treating. Opinions expressed are solely those of the host and guests and do not express the views or opinions of Massachusetts General Hospital.