Traceroute

There is tension between the digital and the physical development spaces. As the world becomes more digital, the distance between software and hardware widens. Only a few people are attempting to bridge the gap. Unspoken competition, gatekeeping, differences in perspective — these reasons and more push experts from the software and hardware spaces apart. But open source is the key to furthering collaboration and innovation in technology development.In this episode of Traceroute, we look deeper into the digital space and how it intrinsically connects to physical hardware. Joining us today are open-source advocates Jon Masters and Brian Fox. They share with us their insights on hardware and software proprietary rights. They also provide context on open-source technology and how vital open source is for innovation and increasing opportunities.  If you are someone looking to explore open source technology, then this episode of the Traceroute podcast might be perfect for you!Episode Highlights [1:50] Behind The Scenes In The Digital SpaceThe utilities we use daily — like water and electric appliances — are built to meet exacting standards to ensure user-friendliness. Similarly, tech companies build digital infrastructures that most computer users can easily utilize.Jon Masters: “We build very boring, elaborate standards so that the average user, if they don't want to, doesn't have to understand every layer of what's going on.”[03:30] How Open Source Ties Software And Hardware TogetherMany people in the tech space tend to focus on either the physical or digital aspects of technology. Not being able to grasp the hardware that supports software can be a lost opportunity.Knowing the hardware that goes with your software and how they intertwine can bring many opportunities.The software industry, especially the internet, requires a durable physical backbone. Likewise, hardware can only evolve with new software developments.The reawakening to hardware development mirrors the early stages of the open-source software space.Jon Masters: “If you look at where the industry is going right now, hardware and software, they were always important counterparts to one another.”[06:34] The Definition of SoftwareSoftware is a symbolic way of writing ideas. Similar to the English language, it employs semantics to express the developer’s collection of ideas. Software technology aims to develop a space that allows computers to perform several tasks simultaneously. To achieve a higher level of computing platform, computer processors would have to undergo time slicing. An operating system manages the software that runs on a computer, as well as access to hardware devices. Essentially, it serves as the interface between humans and hardware. [08:47] The Beginning Of The Open Source MovementBack in the day, students and academics wrote numerous codes. They shared these codes in an effort to further the science. However, the rise of proprietary software ended the open collaboration system of the early days. Not everyone was onboard with proprietary software—thus, giving birth to the idea of open and free software. Brian Fox: “I'm working on a vision detection system, and I want the other guy who was working on it to also be able to enhance it in the direction that he cares about or that she cares about. And it shouldn't stop me. That way, we can share and collaborate, and the entire science moves up.”[09:37] Free Vs. Open Source SoftwareBoth free software and open-source software advocate public access to code. However, the idea behind these software types comes from different places of understanding.Free software does not contain any license that prevents it from being shared across different users.The open source software movement is rooted in an ethical understanding that formulas should not be restricted.Anyone can join the open source community. People from all over the globe can collaborate and pitch in ideas to enhance software features. Brian Fox: “The thing that makes something open source isn't specifically the collaboration; it's the openness of the collaboration.”[11:09] The Free Software FoundationThe Free Software Foundation was founded in the mid-1980s to promote open access and free software to the public. The Free Software Foundation employed a cathedral form of software development, wherein a dictator supervises a project until it reaches a specific stage of maturity. After that, the project becomes open-to-all until it is ready for evaluation by a gatekeeper. When Linus Torvalds completed Linux in the 1990s. Linux progressed and spread globally, which awakened the idea that high-quality systems can be free. Today, nearly every computing device is running on open-source software that Brian Fox wrote. And due to the nature of open source software, it kept maturing. Tune in to the full episode to hear Brian’s analogy for keeping technology open to all and why it is only ethical to pay it forward.Brian Fox: "This is the beauty of open-source—that we can build something useful, and then that utility can be delivered [and] can actually be delivered to the people who want to use it."[16:12] Creating A More Free Internet Space  Free software also contributes to the growth of blockchain technology. These cryptocurrencies aim to deliver software for everyone to use and build upon.Orchid Labs, founded by Brian Fox, aims to establish a more community-centered digital network. Networks and infrastructures would have to be centralized to create a free Internet.Orchid Labs wants to create an Internet space without surveillance, which will give people more freedom online.[18:29] The Connection Between Software And HardwareHardware and software developed hand-in-hand. A phone is a computer, but it carries hardware optimized for specific tasks.Specialized hardware performs functions significantly faster than software.  Improving hardware and software together will also allow computers and servers to perform faster while saving energy. Enhancing both software and hardware can also expand the cloud network. Moore's Law predicts that computer speed and capability will increase as costs decrease. However, progress over the last ten years seems to disprove this perception.Jon Masters: "[Computers seem] to get 52% faster, which all that meant was that software developers would find ways to use that. Yet, the software never seemed to get much faster, but you had hardware just magically doing things for you."[21:42] What Is Open Source Hardware? The hardware industry has recently been growing through open hardware. Open-source hardware is more costly than open-source software since hardware would need money to fabricate high-performance chips.   Open-source hardware allows companies to focus on value creation rather than hardware exclusivity.  Using open-source hardware is an inexpensive way of checking if your software works, especially for beginner app developers. [24:21] Applications Of Software And Hardware SynergyThe automobile industry is gearing towards self-driving features. General-purpose software is being run on top of new high-performance hardware to create smarter vehicles. By improving software and hardware, modern networks also advance. Tesla is currently developing a method that incorporates hardware, software, and networking together, which will allow flexibility and growth in the automobile industry.Since processing occurs in the device itself, aggressive processing will require more advanced devices.Evolving hardware, software, and networks together will create a space for a tremendous amount of processing. Relying on edge computing can also decrease turnaround time for processing data, which will produce a faster system.[27:57] The Future Of Technology5G technology involves high bandwidth with very low latency. Advanced technology depends on smarter backend infrastructure and analytics.Platforms need to become adaptive in learning and processing information before feeding information to the end-users and products. With edge computing, computing and processing become closer to the action. People in software development tend to underplay the complexities of hardware. Likewise, people in hardware tend to think the same about software. Roadblocks in technology can be more easily solved if both software and hardware developers discuss these problems together.Jon Masters: “If I could have one wish in life, it would be to remove that us versus them kind of language and just have us all collaborate more together. And I think that's going to be very important in the decade ahead.”Three reasons why you should listen to this episode:Explore the digital and physical spaces in technology.Learn about the beginnings of the open source development model and why it's essential to the systems we have today. Discover how intertwining software and hardware can lead to a brighter future for technology. About Our GuestsJon Masters is an open-source advocate and computer architect. He previously worked at RedHat as a Distinguished Engineer. During his stay at RedHat, Jon created a technical mitigation team for cache side-channel attacks (Meltdown, Spectre, L1TF, MDS, etc.). He was also the Technical Lead for Red Hat Enterprise Linux for ARM and was involved in the design and implementation of 64-bit ARMv8 Architecture (AArch64) servers. Jon is currently delving deeper into Software/Hardware Codesign at Google. If you want to get in touch with Jon, you can reach him through LinkedIn and Twitter.Brian Fox is a computer programmer and open-source technology advocate. In 1985, he joined the Free Software Association, where he authored several command languages and systems under the GNU Project. Brian also co-founded several ventures, including Virtual World Computing, LLC and Orchid Labs. He also serves as the CEO for Opus Logica, Inc. He presently commits to removing surveillance and censorship on the internet at Orchid Labs. Want to know more about Brian Fox? Visit his LinkedIn or send him a message on Twitter.Additional ResourcesConnect with Jon Masters: LinkedIn I Twitter | RedHatConnect with Brian Fox: LinkedIn  I  Twitter | Orchid LabsEquinixEnjoyed this Episode?If you did, be sure to subscribe and share it with your friends!Post a review and share it! If you enjoyed tuning in, then leave us a review. You can also share this with your friends and colleagues! Expand their knowledge on the open-source movement and its contribution to hardware, software, and technology.Want to learn more? Head on over to Metal Equinix.    Have any questions? You can contact us through our website. Need another way to share? Check out this episode on YouTube.For more episode updates, tune in on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and wherever you get your podcasts. 

The term 5G has been the talk of the town. Much of the hype is due to its faster internet speed that allows the handling of multiple devices compared with previous networks. Recently, some countries have started to roll out this technology. However, it's still in its early years, so we have yet to discover its full potential. In this episode, we'll hear insights from Ed Knapp, Sue Marek, and Sascha Segan on the topic of wireless network connection. We discuss the development of the wireless industry and how internet infrastructure spurred its growth. We also go through the generations of wireless network connection, from 2G to 4G, and peer into how the development of 5G will unfold. If you want to know more about next-generation wireless networks and how technology develops to support them, then this episode is for you.Episode Highlights[01:07] The Beginning of Wireless Technology Wireless technology was introduced during the 80s. It was then that Ed Knapp started to see the emergence of innovative technologies like the car phone. Demand for wireless services was limited because wireless devices and services were expensive. No one expected them to have more than a million subscribers in the US. The technology had tremendous value, even life-saving for some. And so, Knapp wanted more people to access it. By the 90s, people were trying to join analog modems to the cellular network so more people could connect to the internet. But it was too difficult to get them connected.One company couldn't overcome this challenge alone. More help was needed to create massive infrastructure networks necessary to solve this problem. [04:21] Diverging of Paths: Internet and Wireless The wireless industry developed at the same time as internet infrastructure. As they grew, demand for their service also increased. There was an insatiable want for wireless service, and engineers needed to figure out how to create networks that could support it. Cell towers are needed to connect cell phones to networks, but they are expensive to build. Companies, later on, decided to share the equipment instead of building their own. [05:11] Opening the Wireless Network to an Independent Model When the iPhone entered the market, 4G traffic and operatives needed to increase their capacity. The industry evolved into a point where telecom companies do not need to own all network infrastructure. Instead, independent companies started to manage the installed towers. [06:53] Customer Complaints Customers had an issue with how they were being billed. During this time, cell phone companies could get away with charging customers by the minute for their service by acting like they had limited capacity. The same problem happened when text messaging emerged. Customers were still billed by the number of characters.The internet changed the game as it made sending information cheaper. Suddenly, it didn’t make sense for people to be charged the same way again. Because of this technological advancement, businesses were pressured to change their service and how they charged their clients. [09:29] The ‘G’The G in 4G or 5G stands for “generation.” It refers to the phase of technology that is the industry standard.  Sue Marek: “Every generation of cellular [technology] is about every 10 years. So 2020 is 5G, 2010 was 4G, 2000 was really the 3G. 3G was really when we used to talk about the mobile web or the wireless internet.”One of the technological hurdles the 3G era faced was figuring out how to access the web through a phone.[12:06] Cell Phone Digitalization Technology took a huge leap when cell phones started to connect with wireless networks. The digitalization of cell phone systems started during the 1990s. Multiple people could use the service of the same channel at the same time. Sascha Segan: "Once the phones became digital, you could push the internet through them. But more importantly, you could just get a lot more people talking at once on each cell."Internet in your phone needs to go through the air, which is not as efficient as a wired connection. So, wireless network technology needed constant improvement. [13:45] Defining 5G5G latency had to be less than ten milliseconds so users wouldn't notice the delay in service. This technological improvement had a significant effect on applications like autonomous driving, self-driving cars, and gaming. The creation of new businesses and consumer goods also happens when a new G emerges. For example, when 4G happened, the gig economy boomed. It’s still largely unknown what will emerge from 5G. [17:45] The Evolution of Cell PhonesSascha Segan: “People have an emotional connection and a social connection to their phones and to these networks, in a way they don't necessarily have to their PC or their office printer.”People tend to value their phones far more than their laptops, computers, or other devices.The early smartphones appealed to business people. It was a handheld computer that you could use to keep your notes and receive mail. The Blackberry stood out among other smartphone brands because of its simple internet connection and texting features. People in finance and government started to use it for its security features.  By 2006, companies began to produce touch screens, which required a completely new kind of interface. Blackberry wasn't successful in making the switch to this new world of touch-friendly interfaces and fast wireless networks, resulting in its downfall.  [23:55] The Rise of the iPhone and Android DeviceThe growth of smartphones happened because of significant phone and network technology advancements. For example, the social media culture and the ability to share photos, videos, and audio exists because we have access to the 4G wireless network. Sascha Segan: " ...as computers get more powerful and the computers in phones get more powerful, and the computers and towers get more powerful and more wireless spectrum becomes available, it becomes possible to encode the airwaves in new, more complicated ways. And each time you break with the previous path, that's a new generation." [27:23] 5G, Wireless Networks, and Beyond As the wireless and cell phone industry expanded, so did the ways they connect rely on each other. Segan believes that 20 years from now, wireless networks will increase globally, especially in areas where there is little to no internet connection or wifi access. This development in delivering information will give massive opportunities to raise living standards throughout the world.Sascha Segan: “5G is almost certainly going to have at least that big of a change in the world. We just really aren't sure about the details yet.”Knapp believes that 5G can take technology to a higher level. This will range from edge delivery, autonomous platforms, and orbit cloud-native architecture. In terms of 6G, he believes that the wireless network connection needs to deliver super high performance over shorter distances.Three reasons why you should listen to this episode:Learn the history of how next-generation wireless network technologies emerged.Find out how the internet helped support the advancement of wireless technology.Discover the potentials and possibilities offered by 5G technology.About Our GuestsEd Knapp is the CTO of American Tower, one of the leading independent tower companies in the world. He has 40 years of experience in wireless technology and has been one of the critical figures since the industry started. To date, his company continues to deliver innovative infrastructures to enable 5G wireless network technology. Learn more about Ed’s work on the American Tower website and connect with him on LinkedIn.Sue Marek is the editor-in-chief of  SDxCentral. She is also a professional speaker for telecom and technology industry events and has moderated panels for the Consumer Electronics Show, the Competitive Carriers' Show, The Wireless Infrastructure Show, 5G North America, DC 5G, Interop, and more.Marek has over 25 years of experience in covering stories for the cellular industry, and she has continuously followed the advancement of technology throughout her career.You can connect with Sue over on Twitter. Sascha Segan is the lead mobile analyst of pcmag.com and has reported on the wireless market for more than 15 years. He is known for his reviews on smartphones, tablets, and other gadgets. He is also a well-renowned travel writer who has contributed to Frommer’s series of travel guides for more than ten years. Want to know more about Sascha? Head over to his LinkedIn and Twitter.Resources Connect with Ed Knapp: American Tower Website | LinkedinConnect with Sue Marek: Twitter Connect with Sascha Segan: Linkedin | TwitterEnjoyed this Episode?If you did, be sure to subscribe and share it with your friends!Post a review and share it! If you enjoyed tuning in, then leave us some feedback. You can also share this with your friends and colleagues! Help them understand how the wireless network connection we enjoy today came to be.Want to learn more? Head on over to Metal Equinix.    Have any questions? You can contact us through our website. Need another way to share? Check out this episode on YouTube.For more episode updates, tune in on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and wherever you get your podcasts.

When we open web browsers and streaming services, we expect them to work seamlessly without interruptions. Sounds basic enough, right? But have you considered how much data goes over your local network? Now imagine all the computers communicating worldwide! It took years for internet service providers to make the internet work the way it does today. Without the physical infrastructure underpinning our networks, connecting computers the way they are now would have been impossible.In this episode, Dave Temkin, Ingrid Burrington, Jack Waters, and Andrew Blum join us to discuss how the internet works. They detail the hidden infrastructure involved in getting computers connected around the world. Contrary to what digital natives might think, your connection to the World Wide Web isn't 100% wireless. They also discuss the rise of Netflix and the need for an interconnected and open global network.If you want to understand the massive network of physical infrastructure required to connect computers worldwide, then this episode of the Traceroute podcast is for you.Episode Highlights [01:15] Netflix’s Goal and Challenge Dave Temkin: “We always knew that streaming was going to be the future. It's not a coincidence that the company was called Netflix, the intention was always to deliver it over the network. We just needed to feel that the network was ready.”Netflix, the global streaming service that allows uninterrupted streaming, took years to build. The infrastructure needed to be scalable to a point where it can serve millions of users without breaking the internet. The key to solving this data transmission challenge is networks.[3:12] What is a Network? Networks are overlapping and interconnecting things. These can be virtually or physically tied together. The networks that let the internet work require the support of physical infrastructure.Acknowledging this fact helps us understand that the internet is a public resource. People don’t see internet infrastructures as public work.Network infrastructure includes data centers, towers, and all the wires, cables, and fibers that connect them. [5:47] How the Network Market GrewAfter the government relaxed regulations in the 1990s, there was a big wave of infrastructure development. For example, Williams, an oil and gas company, built fiber networks using their non-operational oil and gas pipelines.Developers built many fiber networks beyond that time's demand. Many of these infrastructures are still in us today. [6:58] Interconnection and Resiliency of Networks Most people will only think about their own network. In reality, a larger computer network of interconnected cables is the basis of how the internet works.Interconnectivity forms the basis of maintaining a stable internet connection. Hundreds of interconnected cables ensure that computer networks are durable and resilient.Ingrid Burrington: “There is a resiliency built into the way that Internet networks function in that it's not just like one single cable that gets cut and everyone loses their internet access.”[8:18] Level 3’s LegacyPhysical linkages are necessary to make the internet work. Many people don’t think about this equipment. For Level 3, internet infrastructure needed to be built from scratch but still have the space for upgrades. The company built 16,500 miles of network in the United States and 3,500 miles in Europe in 30 months. Before this network was constructed, the internet ran largely on the legacy of the telephone network. The demand for the networks Level 3 built did not surface until the late 2000s. While they missed the timing, their legacy remains.[14:38] How The Internet Has ChangedThe emergence of smartphones helped dramatically change the internet’s landscape. We now favor cloud, triggering the need for a hybrid cloud provider and such.Jack Waters: “I do think it is probably one of the most important things that have ever been developed for mankind. And I think it's changed everyone's lives for the better, even though there are many downsides that we're navigating through.”As the industry grows, there will always be power struggles and concerns over consolidation and equal access. With current growth rates, infrastructure investment crucial to how the internet works should also expand to serve future demand.  [16:24] The Layers of Networks that Ensure the Internet WorksAndrew Blum: “Fundamentally, a network means that we can connect to each other across distance and we can expand those connections constantly.” These networks are physical building blocks required for how the internet works. Data centers network multiple servers where data is stored and processed. Internet exchange points connect web servers and networks physically through cables inside physical internet routers.There are also lines that connect multiple computers and networks to each other.[18:51] Development and Ownership Although fiber optic cables are cheap, digging trenches for them is expensive. Many companies went bust because of these costs. But these initial infrastructure developments paved the way for how the internet works now. They also gave rise to streaming services like YouTube, Netflix, Apple iTunes.In the past decade, thousands of interconnected networks got replaced by the internet’s biggest companies like Facebook, Google, Amazon, Apple, and Microsoft. Google, Amazon, and Facebook have built their own international networks and over time have connected to create a more efficient computer network. Neutral exchange points are vital to allow smaller networks to exist and not rely entirely on internet giants. [24:06] The Value of An Interconnected and Open InternetOtter, a transcription service, allows huge files to be transported from Dropbox instantly. That feat would be impossible without an interconnected and open internet. The companies that have done best are the ones who can keep up with our demands from the internet, such as Netflix. There used to be a time when you couldn't watch Netflix during a busy Saturday night due to the internet traffic, but this has now been solved. Even though services have become much more efficient, we should remember that these companies have replaced thousands of networks.[26:24] Why A Decentralized Internet? Decentralization is crucial to allow for technical innovation, price flexibility, and competition. No one internet service provider should be the sole provider of internet access. To prevent crashing, Netflix needed a reliable and strong computer network. They couldn't rely on just one provider. When Netflix started, it depended on neutral exchange points and strong partnerships. Managing these partnerships meant keeping access open.Learn more about Netflix’s evolution in the full episode![32:00] Physical Investments Responsible for How the Internet WorksTechnology infrastructure underpins all the technological advancements that we continue and will continue to enjoy.For instance, the COVID vaccines took only weeks to produce because of the computer infrastructure they used to model.Dave Temkin: “If we didn't have that infrastructure, it would be years and not measured in weeks, months or days.”Three reasons why you should listen to this episode:Learn about how internet technology and infrastructure developed over the years. Understand the physical nature of your wireless internet connection. Discover why interconnected networks are crucial for technological advancements. About Our GuestsDave Temkin is a seasoned technology executive with experience in building and scaling world-class infrastructures and teams. He was the Vice President of Network and Systems Infrastructure at Netflix and built the world’s largest content delivery network. He is also the founder and board member of Community IX FL-IX, the largest member-run internet exchange platform. You can contact him on LinkedIn and Twitter.     Ingrid Burrington is a journalist who writes about technology, data centers, and networks. She wrote the New York: An Illustrated Field Guide To Urban Internet in 2016 and has contributed to several books and exhibition catalogs. You can learn more about her work on her website and contact her on Twitter and through email (lifewinning@gmail.com).     Jack Waters is a digital infrastructure executive with extensive experience in telecommunications, engineering for enterprise customers, and customer relations. He was the CTO of Level 3 Communications, President of the Zayo Group, and currently the Chairperson of Digital 9 Infrastructure PLC. You can contact him on LinkedIn. Andrew Blum is a journalist and writer. He writes about technology, infrastructure, design, architecture, cities, art, and travel. In 2012, he wrote Tubes: A Journey to the Center of the Internet, and in 2019, he wrote The Weather Machine: A Journey Inside the Forecast. You can learn more about his works on his website and email him at ab@andrewblum.net.  ResourcesTubes: A Journey To The Center Of The Internet by Andrew BlumLevel 3 (Century Link, Lumen): LinkedIn I Website  Networks of New York: An Illustrated Field Guide to Urban Internet Infrastructure by Ingrid Burrington Enjoyed this Episode?If you did, be sure to subscribe and share it with your friends!Post a review and share it! If you enjoyed tuning in, then leave us a review. You can also share this with your friends and colleagues! Help them understand how a computer connects to the internet and how the internet works.Want to learn more? Head on over to Metal Equinix.    Have any questions? You can contact us through our website. Need another way to share? Check out this episode on YouTube.For more episode updates, tune in on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and wherever you get your podcasts.

There are a lot of components that make up a computer. It’s amazing how the tiniest little chips can make the whole thing work. However, not many of us think about these today. We just expect our devices to work as they should. But did you know that only some decades ago, the innovations we enjoy today were essentially unthinkable? The pursuit of something better brought the tech space to where it is today.In this episode, Renée James and Jon Gertner join us to talk about what silicon is used for in computer hardware. They break down the history of semiconductors and transistors. They also lay down the various experiments and breakthroughs that occurred before the conception of the industrial and consumer products we enjoy today.If you want to know why and how silicon metal runs everything in tech, this episode is for you.Episode Highlights [01:18] A Little Girl’s Journey to the Computer IndustryThe CEO of semiconductor company Ampere Computing, Renée James, grew up alongside the computer industry.Her exposure to tech began with her father, who used to work at HP. He built computers and motherboards.Renée went on to a storied career at Intel. Now, she leads her own semiconductor company.The material that has stayed constant throughout Renée’s career is silicon metal.[03:10] What Silicon Metal IsSilicon metal is the hard, brittle crystalline semiconductor that makes up transistors. These, in turn, make up chips, which make up computers.In essence, what silicon metal is used for, is computers.Silicon metal production began before the 70s and 80s. It inspired the name Silicon Valley.[03:28] Bell Labs and AT&TSilicon metal started with Bell Labs, a company named after Alexander Graham Bell.Bell Labs produced the American Telephone and Telegraph  (AT&T) Company. The company later monopolized the telephone service in the US.AT&T created an R&D development laboratory in 1925 called the Bell Telephone Laboratories. It started as a means to create a national phone system. The lab's monopoly was critical to its long-term growth and success. It allowed them to plan for innovations around communications.[05:24] Inventing Innovative TechnologiesBell Labs produced technology not so much because they had great ideas, but because they had problems to solve. They had to create a national communication system from scratch.Switching centers in the 1930s contained enormous banks of switches that connected people to each other.The idea of the transistor was to use a new material without moving parts.The transistor is the building block of all electronic products. It's an amplifier and switch that replaced vacuum tubes and electromechanical relays.Jon Gertner: “It made everything smaller, it made it faster, and it made it better.”The material that would make transistors work is silicon metal. [07:40] SemiconductorsA material that would become critical for transistors is semiconductors.Semiconductors acted like conductors under certain circumstances.These became valuable for wireless radios. Silicon metal, alongside germanium, was also used as a semiconductor for radar sets.[08:08] Experimentation on Transistors and SemiconductorsSome experts guessed that semiconductors could be useful in the phone system in the late 1930s.William Shockley experimented in turning semiconducting material into amplifiers in the 30s and 40s. It proved to be very difficult.It took years of experimentation to get anywhere with silicon metal and transistors.Bell Labs clearly understood the need to manipulate materials for communication systems.Jon Gertner: “The backbone of electronics and the backbone of these vast interconnected communication systems, it's actually this sort of decades-long or almost century-long pursuit of understanding the kinds of materials we needed to create the system.”[09:36] Semiconductive Material Breakthrough: Functional ImpurityFunctional impurity changed how semiconductive materials work. It works by putting a tiny millionth percent of material into silicon metal or germanium. We now call it "doping."[10:12] Germanium vs. Silicon MetalGermanium was the material used for very early transistors. But they realized that silicon metal would be a better material.Germanium is a rarely found material, whereas silicon metal is an abundant element.Silicon metal also has a higher melting point.Morris Tanenbaum created the first silicon metal transistor. He knew it would work even in boiling water because of its high boiling point.[10:56] Scaling TransistorsIt took around ten years for the industry to manufacture the first transistors.These were single individual transistors, not integrated circuits.It was clear early on that failure was going to be part of the growth process.Jon Gertner: “When you're seeking to solve a really difficult problem—the answer would not come easy, and the answer might take a very long time.”Bell Labs didn’t see the great potential of the Internet. The decentralized communications network was unthinkable to them at the time.Still, their breakthroughs in silicon metals became fundamental to the age of the Internet.[13:25] Rapid Evolution of Technology from the 70s OnThe use of computers went from only hobbyists to being an essential part of all our lives, a growth process to which Renée had a front-row seat.She always had an affinity for figuring out how to revolutionize the use of technology.At Intel, she got assigned to work on getting audio and video to stream on a PC. It later became the add-on product Video for Windows (VfW).[16:42] On Silicon Metal and the InternetThe phenomenon of how we use the Internet in recent years is relatively new.Semiconductors are an essential material of computing. Many industries need them.Transistors improve the performance of a computer. There are specialized transistors for different features like accelerated graphics, security, or audio.[18:53] MicroprocessorsMicroprocessors are the brains of computers.They needed to be accessible enough to people in a cost-effective way. It happened with desktop computers.A critical step along the way was the fifth generation of microprocessors—the Pentium.Microprocessors' evolution became the advent of broad-based coders. [20:13] On Cloud ComputingThe biggest development in recent years has been around architecting and using transistors most efficiently.It's about working on power, power distribution, and the data center.Silicon metal and transistor growth and innovations help power the Internet, and, therefore, many industries. Listen to the full episode to learn more about this process!Renée James: “There's a tremendous amount of artistry to [chip design] in the sense that the computer scientists and the physicists and the architects who do this work, in many, many ways, are dreaming up what's possible.”[22:53] What Silicon Metal is Used ForSilicon metal powers everything; it’s everywhere.The level of complexity in how to manufacture different kinds of silicon metal varies.Bare metal cloud computing and data centers require the most advanced and most demanding silicon available in the market.[24:21] Ampere ComputingAmpere Computing built the first 100% built-to-serve-cloud-software processor.The processor has a different level of performance, structuring, and features that accelerate cloud software.Creating more powerful semiconductors gives the software the horsepower they need. It also makes it possible to put in special features to assist applications.[24:52] What’s Next for Silicon MetalThere are things in software you can’t do because of inadequate performance.Innovation in the tech realm spurs more innovation in the microprocessing space.Renée says we're seeing a renaissance of interest in computer design.However, the complexity of chips gets lost on most people.Renée: “A transistor is not visible to the naked eye. It is that small, it is that complicated, and it enables us to know things we couldn't have known before, to find things we couldn't find before, to do things we couldn't do before.”Three reasons why you should listen to this episode:Discover the various innovations that came to fruition through silicon metal.Learn about the history and growth of semiconductors in tech.Understand what silicon metal is used for in running the Internet and cloud computingAbout Our GuestsRenée James is the founder and CEO of Ampere Computing. Ampere Computing is a startup semiconductor company building high-performance microprocessors for cloud and edge computing. Renée is also presently Director at Citi Corp and Oracle. Before that, she served as President of Intel for 28 years. Renée has extensive global operating experience in hardware and software development and semiconductor manufacturing. She advocates for representation in tech and pushes for the future of the US semiconductor industry. To connect with Renée, visit her LinkedIn page.Jon Gertner is a journalist and author. He wrote the books, The Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of Innovation and The Ice at the End of the World. Jon is a contributing writer for the New York Times Magazine. He also has published articles in major publications, including The Wall Street Journal, The Washington Post, and Wired.To know more about Jon’s work, visit his website and Twitter. Additional ResourcesConnect with Renée: LinkedInConnect with Jon: Website | Twitter Ampere ComputingIntelAT&TThe Idea Factory: Bell Labs and the Great Age of American Innovation by Jon GertnerEnjoyed this Episode?If you did, be sure to subscribe and share it with your friends!Post a review and share it! If you enjoyed tuning in, then leave us a review. You can also share this with your friends and colleagues! Help them understand what silicon metal is used for in tech.Want to learn more? Head on over to Metal Equinix.    Have any questions? You can contact us through our website. Need another way to share? Check out this episode on YouTube.For more episode updates, tune in on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and wherever you get your podcasts.

Inventing the internet can be traced from its formation for military and academic use. Since then, we've made huge leaps in terms of communication and interconnectivity. Greater interconnectivity has changed the game for building networks between people. The projects that began in 1966 have fundamentally altered communication practices all over the world.In the first episode of Traceroute, we go back to the start of the Cold War. What was the initial purpose of computer networking? How has it changed over time? We'll answer these questions with insights from Jay Adelson, Sarah Weinberger, John Morris, and Peter Van Camp. In this episode, we'll discover how the very nature of digital communication evolved and continues to evolve today. One major contribution to the interconnectivity we enjoy today is the neutral exchange framework spearheaded by Equinix.Episode Highlights [02:46] DARPA and Improving InterconnectivityThe Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in response to the panic caused by the Soviet Union’s Sputnik, the first artificial satellite in the world.DARPA had a broad mandate to take on research projects as directed by the Secretary of Defense. It tried to create new technologies to keep the Pentagon and the military ahead of the Soviets. DARPA's priorities were space and defense research. However, it also had to consider effective communication and improving interconnectivity.[04:24] The Birth of ARPANETOne of the research projects funded by DARPA was ARPANET. The concept of computer networks were new, but improved interconnectivity within the organization.In the early days of computers, DARPA hired J.C.R. Licklider. He became fundamental to inventing the internet.Sharon Weinberger: “He sort of looked ahead and said, the way that we work with computers is going to fundamentally change our society.”Their proposal became a prototype. 1969 was the first instance of two computers being connected, and the first message delivered over ARPANET was sent. It was a struggle to convince people of the benefits of greater interconnectivity. The project's funding was almost cut due to lack of support.[07:41] Interconnecting PeopleMore people realized that having interconnected systems had applications outside military use.The internet left DARPA's hands in the 90s, becoming commercially viable and consumer-friendly. But we can't overlook its military legacy.J.C.R Licklider’s hand in inventing the internet also cannot be understated.ARPANET is an example of a successful collaboration between the government and private sector.[09:36] Traffic in the Open WebJohn Morris: “Back in the '80s, commercial communications were prohibited on the internet. The internet was only for government and academic communication.”The internet’s evolution to how we know it today started when it was decentralized from government control.Connection points soon became congested and created traffic in physical telecommunication networks.More importantly, opportunities online led to commercial growth and the need for regulation.[13:07] The Telecommunications Act of 1996The main focus of the legislation was to generate competition among phone companies.It also created an opportunity for CLECs (competitive local exchange carriers). They could deliver better connectivity and services to a user through higher-speed internet. This development led to the birth of broadband internet. It also increased the need for physical connection points to maintain efficient interconnectivity between devices.The '96 Telecommunications Act enabled private organizations separate from phone companies to run exchange points.Competition between phone companies made neutral exchange points that laid the groundwork for the internet today.[16:06] A Faster, Decentralized Internet Cable companies entering the competition for providing internet access opened the debate for open access neutrality. Thankfully, we have a reasonably open network today. A user can access almost anything online without limitation.We still benefit from the Telecommunications Act today. It mandates that the internet remains decentralized, and the competition pushes companies to improve their services.John Morris: “It was critically important that we enabled very broad, ubiquitous connections to allow large and small speakers to be able to reach their audience quickly and reliably and without necessarily being throttled or regulated by an individual network provider.”[21:05] Network Access PointsDuring the early days of the internet, phone companies charged for connectivity to their competitors.Railways became instrumental to providing internet connections over long distances. However, expanding the connecting backbone of these connections became expensive. Thus, a single network was not economically viable.This dilemma brings us to another question: how do we prioritize traffic across this network? [25:33] Neutral Connection Points Brought by Equinix In 1997, network access points became congested and overpriced, affecting the speed, performance, and connectivity. Thankfully, Jay Adelson had an idea.Jay Adelson: The truth is, sometimes, the simple solution is sometimes the best. And much like telephone operators plugging cables into different patch panels, we were doing that in a data center.Backed by investments from the .com bubble, Equinix planned to build an ecosystem from six neutral connection points in the United States. Having a neutral exchange model helped support the growth of the internet we know today. In the past, telecom organizations did not trust each other’s data centers.Thus, Equinix was also invaluable in inventing the internet as we know it today.[29:20] Changes in the Internet’s InfrastructureWhen the bubble popped, Equinix lost many customers. However, the internet slowly recovered, and in the process, changed. These shifts required new infrastructure.In part due to the neutral exchanges, the cost of traffic dropped precipitously. So, it made more financial sense for a business to outsource storage as a service. This shift meant that Equinix had to build larger data centers to handle thousands of customers. A content provider business would need to start building their own servers.Neutral exchange points, the place where interconnection happens, are still important today.Thankfully, everyone is still committed to an open framework. Today, we are all interconnected through our devices.Jay Adelson: “I think everybody's still very committed to an open framework by which they can interconnect with each other and do what they need to do within their sort of their various camps. I don't see a technology breaking point, coming anytime soon.”[33:50] Threats to the Internet’s GrowthThe freedom and interconnectivity users have online can be destructive. It could even cause the demise of the internet as we know it.The threats we’re facing at the moment are the abuse of people's data, the political climate, misinformation, and the culture we built around great interconnectivity through digital communication. Jay Adelson points to the importance of information sensitivity. Consumers and corporations both have responsibilities while online.Three reasons why you should listen to this episode of the Traceroute podcast:Discover how military and academic concepts gave birth to computer networking.Learn the importance of the neutral exchange model to internet speed and widespread availability.Learn what physical infrastructure interacts with software to give us the interconnectivity we have today.About Our GuestsJay Adelson is a serial entrepreneur. He's also the co-founder of Equinix, Digg, Revision3, SimpleGeo, Opsmatic, and Scorbit. Currently focused on his gaming company, he is serving as the chairman and co-founder of Scorbit. His sustaining business model has helped Equinix achieve its global success. Time Magazine selected him for their Top 100 Influential People in 2008. To see more of Jay Adelson’s work, contact him through LinkedIn or Twitter.Sharon Weinberger is a national security reporter and editor. Her 20 years of work focuses on the intersection of national security, technology, and science. She currently is working as Yahoo!’s Bureau Chief in Washington, D.C. Her book, The Imagineers of War: The Untold Story of DARPA, the Pentagon Agency That Changed the World, is about the military beginnings of computer networking and the internet.Interested in more information about Sharon Weinberger? Check out her LinkedIn, and reach her through Twitter.John B. Morris, Jr. is a nonresident fellow for Governance Studies at the Center for Technology Innovation. He served at the National Telecommunications and Information Administration as Head of the Office of Policy and Analysis Development. His work is centered on free expression, data governance, government surveillance, internet standards, competition, open internet policy, and integrity and security issues. You can reach John through LinkedIn.Peter Van Camp is the executive chairman at Equinix, the world’s digital infrastructure company. Together with Jay Adelson and Andy Smith, they built Equinix from the ground up and are responsible for its continued success. To get more information about Equinix and the work they do, go to their website here. Connect with Peter Van Camp through  LinkedIn, Twitter, and Facebook.Additional ResourcesConnect with Jay Adelson: LinkedIn I TwitterConnect with Sharon Weinberger: LinkedIn  I  TwitterAccess Sharon Weinberger’s book, The Imagineers of War: The Untold Story of DARPA, the Pentagon Agency That Changed the World.Connect with John Morris: LinkedIn I Twitter Connect with Peter Van Camp: LinkedIn I Twitter I FacebookEquinixEnjoyed this Episode?If you did, be sure to subscribe and share it with your friends!Post a review and share it! If you enjoyed tuning in, then leave us a review. You can also share this with your friends and colleagues! Introduce them to the people and organizations who played a role in inventing the internet. Want to learn more? Head on over to Metal Equinix.    Have any questions? You can contact us through our website. Need another way to share? Check out this episode on YouTube.For more episode updates, tune in on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, and wherever you get your podcasts.