Show Notes for Episode Thirteen of seX & whY: LGTBQI Health-related Issues Part 1 Host: Jeannette Wolfe Guests:  Dr Elizabeth Samuels Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University Dr Michelle Forcier Professor of Pediatrics at Warren Alpert School of Medicine at Brown University and Director of Gender and Sexual Health Services  This is the first of a three-part series that will cover LGTBQI health related issues. This podcast focuses on some basic definitions and general principles surrounding the care of gender non-conforming children and adolescents. It also discusses some of the gender affirming hormonal and surgical options available to patients.  Resources that we discussed The link to USCF’s Center of Excellence for Transgender Health The link to the American Academy of Pediatrics statement on transgender and gender diverse children. The link to the Gender Unicorn   Basic definitions Biological Sex  This is related to our innate sex chromosomes and hormones Gender  Influenced by biological sex and sociocultural constructs Gender Identity How an individual internally perceives themselves within the norms and expectations of society in which they live Gender Expression How an individual presents their gender publicly via mannerisms, appearance and clothing, etc Gender Asserting How an individual perceives themselves and desires to be viewed by the world  Gender Affirming Hormones, procedures or clothing that align with asserted gender Gender Dysphoria The distress a person may experience when their gender identity is not aligned with their assigned sex Hormones commonly used To stall puberty Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogues Transmen Testosterone Transwomen  Estradiol (and possible spironolactone or finasteride) Gender affirming surgeries Transwomen breast augmentation orchiectomy feminizing vaginoplasty reduction thyrochondroplasty voice surgery Transmen hysterectomy oophorectomy vaginectomy metoidioplasty (clitoral release and enlargement) phalloplasty/scrotoplasty masculinizing chest surgery (“top surgery”) Gender non-conforming health related issues that can occur in transgender and gender non-conforming patients Tucking of scrotum and penis that can lead to trauma/inflammation, infection, reflux Estradiol related thrombosis Testosterone related uterine bleeding Infection or emboli from body sculpting injections  Take home points When someone identifies themselves as transgender that simple means that their gender identity does not align with their assigned sex. It doesn’t mean that they have necessarily had specific surgeries or that they are taking certain hormones. Gender identity is distinct from an individual’s sexual preference.  Some younger kids can experience their gender identity in a more fluid manner. This can often make it more difficult to predict what their gender identities will be later on as adults. Supporting and respecting these kids for where they are, and understanding that their gender identity may or may not later change, is important for their social and psychological development.  As kids reach puberty their gender identity is generally less fluid and more permanent, for kids and their families who our struggling with gender identity, puberty blockers are an option to give people more time to process information and make decisions  Currently there are multiple gender affirming treatments available to trans-individuals, including hormonal treatments and different types of surgeries some of which may become important when a transgender individual becomes a patient in our emergency department Next month we will focus on how we can deliver better care to transgender and gender non-conforming patients in our emergency departments.

Dr Justin Morgenstern and an unknown guest discuss gender gaps in 30 day survival after ST elevation myocardial infarctions. They explore sex-based differences in cardiac electrophysiology and the need to consider sex and gender as legitimate variables in medical studies. The podcast also addresses implicit biases in medical practice and emphasizes the importance of equal care for all patients.

Cardiac arrest expert Dr Justin Morgenstern joins host Jeannette Wolfe to discuss sex and gender differences in CPR. They explore topics such as the disparity in CPR rates between men and women, the impact of the Me Too movement on CPR training, and the importance of creating safe spaces for conversations about this crucial topic. Their conversation highlights the need for better public relations, legal protection for bystanders who perform CPR, and further research on sex and gender differences in CPR.

This podcast explores sex and gender differences in CPR and cardiac arrest. It covers topics such as rates of bystander CPR, gender disparities in receiving CPR, survival differences between males and females, and how men and women describe pain. The podcast also discusses the challenges and cultural concerns in performing CPR on different genders and the importance of finding solutions to decrease the gender gap in CPR rates.

Show Notes for Podcast Eleven, Part 2 of seX & whY Host: Jeannette Wolfe This is a continuation of my interview with Dr. Cara Tannenbaum, Professor in the Faculties of Medicine and Pharmacy at the Université de Montréal in Canada, and Scientific Director of the Institute of Gender and Health of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Our discussion and the following table is centered around this recent review article by Dr. Tannenbaum found in Pharmacology Research 2017 Type of experiment Traditional way Better way                  Stem cells -Male cells -Unknown sex of stem cells -Problems: in immortal cell lines the integrity of in vivo sex chromosomes diminishes over time and can complicate the identification of sex- based differences. Similarly, although normal female cells have two X chromosomes- one from the mother and one from the father- one of those chromosomes is usually turned “off”. With Stem cells however, after multiple reproductive cycles there can get something called “X skewing” in which instead of some cells turning off the maternal chromosome and others the paternal one, there is overrepresentation of one line. Conversely in “X escape”, the second X chromosome is no longer getting inactivated and this can cause trouble because too much X gene is getting expressed (for example this could lead to significant autoimmune problems)  Use and record results of both male and female cell lines Know sex & of donor      -       Include cell lines with finite life spans -       Add sex hormones to XX and XY cell -       X chromosomes house genes that influence: cellular growth, metabolism and immunity -       Y chromosomes contain genes beyond SRY (which makes testosterone), and if loss Y chromosome increased risk of Alzheimers and certain cancers Gendered Innovations group in Korea has actually labeled sex of commercial cell lines                     Lab animal Standard use of male animals -80% of traditional research done on males -Females felt to be too variable due to estrous cycle* (average of 4 days) Inclusion of female animals** -analyze data by sex -include factorial designs that allow for the identification of age or hormonal influence in outcome -Consideration of housing conditions that can lead to hormonal fluctuations Phase trials     Change began with The NIH Revitalization Phase 1 and 2 Currently it is believed that women still make up less than 25% of Phase 1 Include sex and age as independent variables   Further query if discovered sex differences are due to sex-based differences in pharmacokinetics (how our body’s characteristics like our weight or liver function influence the drug) or pharmacodynamics (how the drug influences our body)  Phase 3 trials As it was believed that outside the reproductive organs that males and females were physiologically the same,  most studies focused on males and thus side effects in females were often missed or underappreciated       Report and analyze data by sex and age   Use updated statistical models to calculate appropriate sample sizes prior to starting study so that any identified differences are likely to represent valid findings     Further explore hormonal states of study participants. For example, if they are pre or post menopausal, pregnant, or if they are taking hormones such as estrogen or testosterone.   56% of participants in drug trials submitted to FDA in 2018 were women Phase 4 As this is further analysis of a drug after it hits the market, it can take a long time to pick up sex-based differences. Poster child of this is Ambien in which dosing adjustment for women took 20 years Analyze results from “real world” use of drug and its side effects by sex and age   Go back to lab to identify etiology of discovered sex or age differences   Adjust dosing when important differences are discovered Click here for a paper that nicely summarizes the reasons behind why females were underrepresented in scientific research during the 20th century. Other points    Important variables to consider when talking about biological sex Sex chromosomes X chromosome contains 1669 genes Y chromosome contains 426 genes Sex hormones We all have testosterone, progesterone and estrogen it is the ratios that differ between men and women Hormones influence us in two ways The cocktail of hormones our brain is exposed to during prenatal and pubertal development leads to permanent wiring changes in the brain. The fluctuating blips of hormones caused by multiple different triggers (like the estrous cycle or dominance posing) can lead to transient wiring changes. Depending upon specific context organizational and activational hormones can potentially influence outcome data There are new study designs that can help identify potential hormonal based differences that do not require an excessive sample size or budget Age Gender What we do (and what society allows us to do) influences our epigenetics and future gene expression. For example, our gendered professions- men work more in coal mines and women in nail salons- can influence stuff we are exposed to which in turn can influence are future gene expression.  This is further complicated by males and females having potentially different DNA modifications after exposure to the same insult. Ultimately this can make it tricky to sometimes distinguish what is a sex- based difference versus a gender one. The X chromosome has 1669 known genes on it and the Y chromosome 426 genes Miscellaneous 2017 Tetris study on decreasing PTSD intrusive thoughts after C-section.

Show Notes for Podcast Eleven of seX & whY Host: Jeannette Wolfe Interview with Dr. Cara Tannenbaum, Professor in the Faculties of Medicine and Pharmacy at the Université de Montréal in Canada, and Scientific Director of the Institute of Gender and Health of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research Definitions Biological Sex- chromosomes, hormones, reproductive anatomy, usually binary Gender- social and cultural construct- falls on a spectrum For a really nice summary of current use of definitions please see this excellent review. Excellent websites with tons of resources Institute of Gender and Health- Canadian Institutes of Health Research Video on how to conduct better science that considers the potential influence of sex and gender Historically factors that limited the inclusion of women in clinical trials. Belief that outside of reproductive zones, males and females were the same Dogma that the female estrous cycle screwed up data and that male animals produced “cleaner” results Two interesting facts: 1) Many female rodents’ entire estrous cycle is only 4 days!; and 2) We now know that male animals also have significant hormonal fluxes and that overall they are actually just as variable as females- see review Concern after the worldwide thalidomide nightmare* and the public backlash from the discovery of several unethical government sponsored clinical trials, that fetuses (along with prisoners and children) needed extra protection from the potential of unnecessary harm by participation in a research trial. This led to regulatory protection via the Common Rule. As any women of child-bearing age could theoretically become pregnant, they (and ultimately by cultural proxy all women) were essentially excluded from most human trials and early clinical phase drug trials from 1970’s to the mid 1990’s. To read and an inspiring story as to why most of American was saved from the limb-shortening horrors of thalidomide, read here. (Essentially, FDA scientist Dr. Oldham Kelsey refused to sign off on its application, even amidst considerable pressure from the drug company, due to concern of inadequate evidence.) Interesting sex and gender differences in car crashes Crash dummy 101 Historically crash dummy is Hybrid III which is 5’9’’ 170 pounds representing an average male Hybrid III female model- 5’ 110 pounds Other models- used by NHTSA Why injury patterns may be different between men and women Differences in baseline anthropometric measures (like height) Biomechanical differences (women more prone to whiplash due to differences in neck muscular) Mechanical design (Smaller adults sit closer to steering wheel and increase risk of lower extremity injury, and are more vulnerable to side impact since more of their head is in front of window) NASS CDS data Weight annual sample of US 5000 police reported tow away crashes Collects data on Occupant demographics (Age, sex, weight, BMI; Restraint use; Injuries obtained (via medical records and interviews) standardized into an abbreviated injury scale (AIS). It examines fatality and whole body and regional injuries, on a 1-6 scale of severity Vehicle properties (Type, model year) Crash conditions (Estimated speed, mechanism of impact) What we know from NHTSA data and Insurance Institute for Highway Safety Overall, males represent about 70% of overall fatalities for crashes Greatest gender differences is in 20-29 age group Men more likely to have alcohol involved in accident On average men drive about 5000-6000 miles/yr more than women Women more likely to work closer to home Crashes more likely to be low speed and to occur in more congested areas If a man and a woman are both in car Males more likely to be driver Summary of Bose study Vulnerability of female drivers involved in motor vehicle crashes: An analysis of US population at risk. Question they asked- for a comparable crash do male and female drivers sustain similar rates of injuries. Examined injury outcomes in men and women using 1998-2008 NASS CDS data set For a comparable crash, women had 47% percent greater chance of being severely injured than men (had a higher risk of chest and spine injuries) Of note the researchers controlled for weight and BMI Other evidence that the clinical relevance of studying different sized and biomechanical models in crashes is important is shown by data obtained in 2011 after the NHTSA changed their safety star ratings to include testing of a female sized dummy in the front passenger seat. Many cars found their ratings go down, for example the 2011 Sienna minivan saw its ratings for passenger frontal crashes go from 5 star to 2 after it was shown that at 35mph that 20-40% of female dummies were killed or seriously injured compared to the industry average of 15%. Underscoring the “literal” blind spots that can occur if you don’t consider factors associated with diversity in study design, a recent study from Georgia Tech suggested that some of the visual recognitions systems used that are critical for self-driving car safety may not adequately recognize dark skinned faces showing a 5% increased chance of error in recognition compared to that of fair skinned faces. Of note, there is a significant lack of gender and racial diversity in the self-driving car technology teams and in artificial intelligence/tech research overall. Who makes up the team influences what gets studied, click here for a recent Lancet article and here for a Nature Human Behavior one both  showing that sex-related outcomes are far more likely to be reported in medical research consisting of diverse teams. Take home points Including the variables of biological sex and gender in research results in better science and has led to the discovery of huge knowledge gaps that need to be closed if we want to optimize the care of all of our patients Our historical medical research model has been predominately based on the study of male animals. There are multiple reasons for this including a true belief that: outside our reproductive zones that men are women are exactly the same; using males animal produces cleaner data; and including women of child bearing age in clinical research trials exposes women to unnecessary risks without significant benefit. We now know that all these reasons are fundamentally flawed. Every cell has a sex and the differences between men and women outside their reproductive zones are often quite clinically important. Studying males and females side by side helps us to optimize the care of both sexes. In women it allows us to double check that therapies that were originally developed in men actually work in women and have the same benefit/side effects profiles. And for men, in instances when it is discovered that women have more favorably outcomes, it allows us to go back to the lab, figure out why there is a difference and then to use that knowledge to develop new therapies to help men. To move the scientific community and its deeply ingrained culture to a new model that incorporates the variables of sex and gender will require a comprehensive multi-targeted approach. Key considerations include- engagement, education, skill building around research methodology and analysis, mentoring and funding incentivization. Of note Institutional review boards, journal editors, grant reviewers and conferences directors have great power to jump start this transition by including an expectation of sex and/or gender inclusion in submission requirements. As we live in an ever increasingly complex world, now more than ever, it is essential that we pay attention to who is actually doing the research and developing new technologies. A diverse world requires diverse teams. Next month we will look at the science pipeline from bench to bedside to identify opportunities to do better science.

Show Notes for Podcast Ten of seX & whY Host: Jeannette Wolfe Guests: Adam Kellogg, Associate residency directory and medical education fellowship director UMMS - Baystate and Mike Gisondi, Vice-chair of education at Stanford Topic: How to Give Better Feedback What is bad feedback - Vague Nonactionable Feedback on non-malleable attributes - like gender, age Sandwich model Done in public place in front of peers Know what role you are playing (from Thanks for the Feedback) Cheerleading: encouragement Coach: real time pointers Evaluator: comparison of performance to peers or expected benchmark We are most effective giving and receiving feedback if expectation of roles match up - ie a novice putting in their first central line needs a coach not an evaluator.  Radical Candor- Develop as a Leader and Empower your Team by Kim Scott Caring personally Challenging directly Feedback formula by Lisa Stefanar KSE leadership Ask permission State intention (be a better doctor) State behavior Describe impact Inquire about learner experience Identify desired change  General tips Feedback is also received best if the learner has a sense of belonging and a believe that you recognize their potential Is it the right time (asking them helps) Praise in public, give tough feedback in private Label it - as in “I’d like to give you feedback, is now a good time?” If you anticipate that you might get emotional during feedback, prepare and practice a response. For example, “I obviously have a powerful response to this information could we please take a 5 min break and regroup” Emphasize your desire to hear feedback If needed ask for clarification If you are giving feedback and the other person becomes emotional Consider using “Name and Tame strategy “Last time I gave you feedback, I noticed that you did…….. and I have to tell you, honestly now I’m a little more hesitant. As I want you to be the best doc you can be, is there a particular way that would work best for you to receive feedback?” Switch-tasking- many times conversations can change Recognize which conversation you are going to tackle The one about a specific behavior The one about an emotional tag  Suggested books Thanks for the Feedback- Douglas Stone Sheila Heen Radical Candor by Kim Scott Articles by Mike Gisondi and Lisa Stefanac and the Feedback Formula https://icenetblog.royalcollege.ca/2018/10/02/the-feedback-formula-part-1-giving-feedback/ https://icenetblog.royalcollege.ca/2018/10/23/the-feedback-formula-part-2-receiving-feedback/  Wise feedback intervention: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/xge-a0033906.pdf Harvard Business School article on gender differences in receiving feedback https://hbr.org/2016/04/research-vague-feedback-is-holding-women-back Harvard Business School article with deals with managing emotional response to feedback https://hbr.org/2016/09/how-to-give-feedback-to-people-who-cry-yell-or-get-defensive  

Show Notes for Podcast Nine of seX & whY Host: Jeannette Wolfe Guests: Dr. Dan O’Connor, Dr. Anna Mueller Topic: Gender Differences in Resident Evaluation Welcome back to Sex and Why. In this episode I am joined by Dr. Dan O’Connor, a dermatology resident at Harvard and co-founder of Monte Carlo software that makes apps for medical educators, and Dr. Anna Mueller, who is a medical sociologist and Professor in the Department of Comparative Human Development at the University of Chicago. They are here to discuss their research showing gender disparities in evaluations of emergency medicine residents.  First study Comparison of Male vs Female Resident Milestone Evaluations by Faculty During Emergency Medicine Residency Training. JAMA Internal Medicine 2017 This study examined data from a real time milestone evaluation app used on emergency medicine residents. It involved 356 residents (66% male 34% female) and 285 faculty (68% male and 32% female) at 8 different sites and included over 33,000 evaluations. They showed that although male and female residents had similar evaluations during their first year of training, by their 3rd year male residents were evaluated statistically higher across all 23 core competencies and this occurred regardless of the gender of the evaluator. Second study Gender Differences in Attending Physicians’ Feedback to Residents: A Qualitative Analysis. Journal of Graduate Medical Education  This follow up study was done to better understand why there are gender differences in the evaluations and focused on a qualitative analysis of comments written about third year residents at one of the above program sites. It involved analyzing and creating summaries of individual residents (who had at least 15 written evaluations) and included an analysis of over 1000 comments on more than 45 residents. General findings: Evaluations often contained personality related comments even when the task that was being evaluated was objective or technical Men, compared to women, appeared to have more comments associated with praise versus criticism around these personality related comments Men appeared to have more concordant feedback by evaluators concerning how to improve in areas in which they struggled Women received more discordant feedback about ways to do things better in areas in which they struggled especially surrounding issues about autonomy and leadership Evaluators perceived that women were less likely than men to receive feedback appropriately. Evaluators were more likely to include encouraging comments concerning “a sense of belonging” to male residents Steps moving forward Take a deep breath- this is difficult stuff to discuss and it can easily feel like an attack upon our character. Come to terms that this data is real and legit. This topic is incredibly important and we need to consciously move past our own visceral discomfort of it to find better ways to teach and evaluate the next generation of doctors. Do a private audit of your own evaluations Be more objective in suggestions for improvement Reinforce a sense of belief in ability and of belonging  Stay tuned for next month in which we will tackle feedback. Dayal, A., O’Connor, D. M., Qadri, U., & Arora, V. M. (2017). Comparison of Male vs Female Resident Milestone Evaluations by Faculty During Emergency Medicine Residency Training. JAMA Internal Medicine, 177(5), 651. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2016.9616 Mueller, A. S., Jenkins, T. M., Osborne, M., Dayal, A., O’Connor, D. M., & Arora, V. M. (2017). Gender Differences in Attending Physicians’ Feedback to Residents: A Qualitative Analysis. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 9(5), 577–585. http://www.jgme.org/doi/10.4300/JGME-D-17-00126.1 Additional studies we talked about MRI study about political views- evaluated how individuals with definitive political views may process contradictory information differently than individuals with more flexible mindsets.  Kaplan, J. T., Gimbel, S. I., & Harris, S. (2016). Neural correlates of maintaining one’s political beliefs in the face of counterevidence. Scientific Reports, 6, 39589. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep39589 Thoracic surgery study that suggests that male surgical fellows may actually receive more advanced operative experience than their female matched peers Meyerson, S. L., Sternbach, J. M., Zwischenberger, J. B., & Bender, E. M. (2017). The Effect of Gender on Resident Autonomy in the Operating room. Journal of Surgical Education, 74(6), e111–e118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsurg.2017.06.014 JAMA study perceiving gender differences in implicit bias in academic medicine Jagsi  R, Griffith  KA, Jones  R, Perumalswami  CR, Ubel  P, Stewart  A.  Sexual harassment and discrimination experiences of academic medical faculty.  JAMA. 2016;315(19):2120-2121. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5526590/

Show Notes for Podcast Eight of seX & whY Host: Jeannette Wolfe Guests: Dr. John Coates Topic: The Influence of Testosterone and Cortisol on Decision Making, With Neuroscientist Dr. John Coates Dr. John Coates is a neuroscientist and author of The hour between dog and wolf- how risk taking transforms the body and mind.  He is an ex-trader and now runs Dewline Research. He studies how subtle unconscious changes in an individual’s physiology can shift their decision making and is particularly interested in the roles of testosterone and cortisol.  He is specifically focused on how the fluctuation of these hormones might influence volatility in the stock market. As it appears that both successful traders and emergency medicine are required to make high impact decisions in novel and often unpredictable situations, I think there is much we can learn from his work and I am thrilled he could join us for this discussion. Before we delve in, I’d like to remind folks that my interest in this material is to better understand how individuals and teams can optimize their performance under stress. The material we are covering in this podcast- the possible influence of sex hormones on decision making- is undoubtedly going to make some listeners uncomfortable. I truly believe, however, that this topic is important and deserves an honest and curious appraisal. To be absolutely clear, I do not believe that there is a better sex equipped with a better brain, rather that there are simply different neurobiological ways that different brains use to approach and complete similar tasks. My goal here, is for us to develop better insight into how we individually react under different high stress scenarios. Hopefully, we can then use this information to explore new ways to play up our individual strengths and mitigate potential vulnerabilities. Let’s get started. Over the years, Dr. Coates and his team have  conducted some pretty interesting “field work” studies especially his 2008 study on London short traders. In that study his team took twice daily saliva samples in 17 male traders over an 8 day period and found: Both cortisol and testosterone levels varied greatly throughout the study Mean daily cortisol levels increased as much as 400% Afternoon cortisol levels increased as much as 500% (in an unstressed individual cortisol typically peaks in the early morning.) Elevated AM testosterone levels correlated with afternoon profitability Elevated cortisol levels correlated with market volatility (but interestingly not with simple losses) Since then he has done several additional studies and concludes that the only way to really understand the bubbles and crashes of the stock market is by better understanding the human physiology of the traders.  Here are some of his take home points. An individual’s risk preference is probably far more dynamic than previously believed and is impacted by subtle, unconscious, shifts in physiology Individuals can have different risk preferences in different domains (participate in dangerous hobbies but are conservative with their finances) Individuals with increased interoceptive awareness may be quicker to recognize anomalous blips of data buried within piles of “expected” information. This may contribute to the phenomenon of a “gut instinct” Hormonal fluctuations likely contribute to risk preferences Increasing testosterone levels likely shifts risk preferences to make individuals more open to riskier endeavors Young males in competitive situations may be particularly vulnerable as they have significantly higher levels of baseline testosterone than women and older men This risk shift is likely even more dramatic in individuals taking unnecessary testosterone supplementation (which is now a 2 billion dollar industry with 2/3 of the individuals who use testosterone not having a medically indicated reason for taking it.) Increasing cortisol levels (in particular chronically increased levels) likely shifts risk preferences in the opposite direction and makes individuals act more risk adverse. As these hormonal shifts are occurring unconsciously, it is difficult for individuals themselves to recognize their behavioral shift and depending upon the situation external safeguards (perceptive team members, monitoring systems) could be helpful.     “Winner’s Streaks” - In the research community there is still some controversy as to whether this phenomenon even exists or if such streaks simply represent statistical outliers that are selectively remembered due to their unusualness. - Coates strongly believes that winner’s streaks are real and are crucial to understanding behavior under certain circumstances. - There is good data in the animal kingdom to suggest that if two male animals are in a competition and if their size, motivation (i.e. being hungry versus well fed) and baseline aggression are all controlled, that the animal who wins that encounter will be statistically more likely to go on and win their next competitive encounter. Some theories as to why this might occur: Actual competition gives each opponents and idea of how they might stand in future altercations Winners self-perception of their strengths increases, and they become more comfortable with additional confrontation The initial victory may physically increase the winner’s resources allowing it to go into its next encounter with an advantage (i.e. access to more food increases its size) A potential physiological contributor to a winner’s streak may be real time fluctuations in an individuals’ testosterone levels (and possibly a change in the sensitivity of their testosterone receptors). Although many things can cause fluctuations in testosterone levels, two things that appear to consistently elevate it are competition and winning. Over a period of time, consistently elevated testosterone levels might offer an advantage by increasing: muscle mass hemoglobin/oxygen capacity confidence, persistence and increased risk taking desire to seek out novelty Like most hormones, however, testosterone’s effects likely plot out on an inverted U shape curve in that depending on the circumstances: small increases of testosterone levels might be advantageous as a slight increase in risk tolerance may lead to increased reward at some point, however, risk becomes excessive and becomes a disadvantage in animal research this may lead to: patrolling of unrealistically large areas increasing exposure to dangerous situations increasing fighting neglecting parental duties loss of energy stores Research in humans shows that increasing testosterone levels Increases risk preference Quickens reaction time Defaults to automatic thinking In high levels, especially if given exogenously can lead to Euphoria Mania Impulsivity Sensation seeking   Specific research done by Coates and his team   Tennis experiment Question addressed: Are “winning streaks” a real phenomenon or simply statistical outliers? What they did- Looked at large data base of historical tennis matches in which players who were similarly ranked went into an extended tiebreaker involving more than 20 points in the first set and in which the winner was determined by only two points. (They did this to essentially try and show that on the day of their competition that not only were both players similarly ranked but that they were also playing at a similar level- i.e. both were having a “good day”) Results- Men (N=235 matches) who won their first set were 60% more likely to win second set but no significant difference in second set victory was found amongst women (N= 140), suggesting that this might be driven by testosterone as women have about 5-10% level of men.      Cortisol study In this study Coates and his team were interested in how an acute and a chronic elevation in stress hormones might affect risk preference. Using data from one of their previous studies which showed that during a period of increased market volatility that traders had a 68% increase in their daily cortisol levels, they went back to the lab to try and replicate this finding and then test decision making in a more controlled environment.   What they did: randomized double-blind placebo controlled cross over-study involving 20 men and 16 women. In treatment arm, volunteers were given weight- based hydrocortisone 3x a day for 8 days to mimic cortisol increases seen in traders. All participants played a lottery style game in which they could choose an option in which they had a lesser chance of winning but a higher pay out if they did, or a less risky option in which they had an overall increased chance of winning but at a lower expected payout. The game was played after acute and chronic dosing.   Findings- they did not find a difference in risk preference amongst volunteers after they received their initial hydrocortisone (as an aside, the literature on risk preference after acute cortisol increase is somewhat inconsistent) but in this study they did find that after 8 days of taking exogenous steroids that individuals became much more risk adverse and that men were affected more so than women.   Thoughts as to why chronically elevated steroids change our decision making Physical changes occur in the hippocampus that impair normal functioning (neurogenesis is suppressed and dendritic spines are reduced ) Similarly, changes also occur in the prefrontal cortex Negatively affect working memory Decrease attentional control Impair behavioral flexibility The amygdala, on the other hand, revs up, causing increased dendritic connections and increase corticotropin releasing hormone gene expression   Bundled all together this may lead to: Increased focus on imagined threat Increased risk of anxiety, depression, and learned helplessness Shift to habitual behavior and decreased motivation to try novel action   Using this data, Coates theorizes that prolonged periods of financial uncertainty in the stock market likely cause traders’ cortisol levels to increase and stay increased leading to an aversion to risk or an “irrational pessimism” that left unchecked can lead to a bear market.   Finally, attached below is a reference to a recent review article that Dr. Coates wrote summarizing his theories as to the relationship between cortisol and testosterone on bull and bear markets and emphasizing the importance of field work in scientific discovery and refinement.    To learn about some complementary research being done at Wharton check out this interview with Gideon Nave and Amos Nadler in which they discuss their recent work evaluating decision making in men using exogenous testosterone. They found that that although certain cognitive functions appeared unaffected (like doing math problems), men who were given testosterone gel were more likely to rely on their gut instinct when answering questions. Which, again, depending upon the circumstances could be potentially helpful or harmful.   Coates, J. M., & Herbert, J. (2008). Endogenous steroids and financial risk taking on a London trading floor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 105(16), 6167–72. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0704025105 Kandasamy, N., Hardy, B., Page, L., Schaffner, M., Graggaber, J., Powlson, A. S.,Coates, J. (2014). Cortisol shifts financial risk preferences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(9), 3608–13. Page, L., & Coates, J. (2017). Winner and loser effects in human competitions. Evidence from equally matched tennis players. Evolution and Human Behavior. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.02.003 Coates, J., & Gurnell, M. (2017). Combining field work and laboratory work in the study of financial risk-taking. Hormones and Behavior, 92, 13–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.01.008

Show Notes for Podcast Seven of seX & whY, Part 2 Host: Jeannette Wolfe Guests: Dr. Neha Raukar, Emergency and Sports Medicine Physician Katherine Snedaker, Executive Director of Pink Concussions Topic: Sex and Gender Differences in Concussions This is part II of our discussion about concussion with Katherine Snedaker and Neha Rauker. Today’s podcast focuses on recovery and prevention. Here are the take home points: Concussion research is rapidly changing, and it is important to stay up to date on the literature There is a large NCAA study whose results should be released soon Concussion treatment has to be individualized as symptoms can vary tremendously both within and between the sexes. Overall, however, women appear to be at greater risk for having an increased clustering of symptoms and a prolonged recovery Cocoon therapy (being isolated in a dark room with no stimulation) is out and has been replaced by the concept of “relative rest” which is the idea that you can do activities that don’t exacerbate symptoms Screen time has pros and cons Cons the contrast of light between the screen and the environment and scrolling can lead to vestibular irritation Much of the activities associated with “screen time” also increase cognitive demands Pros It often helps people stay connected with their social circles which can decrease feelings of isolation and depression The new FDA blood test does not test whether or not someone has a concussion, it tests for specific proteins (UCH-L1 and GFAP) that are released by the brain into the blood after a severe injury and correlates with the likelihood of finding an intracranial bleed on CT. Prevention research and intervention targets multiple different levels including: Overall awareness Equipment- both in design and in proper fit Training of coaches/trainers Rule Enforcement Locker room culture Although sports related concussions get the most press, traumatic brain injuries lead to more than 2.8 million (2013 CDC data) emergency visits per year with car accidents, physical assaults and falls being big contributors. There is currently a large gap in treatment access and ownership for non-sports related TBI Thank you again to my guests!