Dr. Alex Byrne is a Professor of Philosophy at MIT and author of Trouble with Gender. In this episode, we talk about the problematic concept of gender, which is often used interchangeably to mean sex, gender identity, gender role, gender norm, or gender stereotypes. Alex and I discuss each of these, and their precise definitions in philosophy, biology, or sociology in detail. We also discuss the problem of identity and categorization in philosophy of mind and language more broadly, as a source of some of the confusion. Lastly, we discuss the nuances of defining sex and gender in intersex and transgender populations, the essentialist nature of felt gender identity, the concept of transracialism, the ethics of social and medical gender transition in children, and answer the question: What is a woman?  00:18 Understanding the 'Trouble with Gender' 02:19 Exploring the History of Gender Philosophy 05:07 The Role of Language in Defining Gender 05:46 The Complexity of Gender Terminology 10:16 The Misinterpretation of Gender Concepts 22:22 The Absurdity of Precise Definitions 41:33 The Biological Definition of Sex 58:18 The Hypothetical Cat-Dog: A Thought Experiment of Social Perception 01:02:32 Gender, Sex, and the Complexity of Identity 01:03:35 The Practical Implications of Defining Gender 01:05:51 Transgender Identity and the Question of 'Passing' 01:20:21 The Philosophical Dilemma of Pronouns and Gender Identity 01:22:33 Transracialism and the Social Construct of Identity 01:46:13 The Controversy of Autogynephilia and Gender Identity 01:53:29 The Reception and Impact of Controversial Philosophical Ideas

Dr. Wolfram Schultz is a Professor of Neuroscience at the University of Cambridge and one of the world’s leading experts on dopamine. In this episode, we discuss the dopamine system's role in reward processing, evolutionary fitness, the functioning of dopamine neurons, the interplay between reward vs punishment, and the complexity of neurons. Dr. Schultz overviews core mechanisms of value-guided decision-making, risk-taking, addiction, the role of prediction error in shaping reinforcement learning, how these are all explained by dopamine, and the differences between dopamine and serotonin 00:18 Understanding Reward Processing in Animals 01:29 Evolutionary Role of Reward System 03:31 Complexity of Reward System and Dopamine Neurons 04:31 Differentiating Reward and Avoidance Systems 05:35 Role of Emotion in Reward Processing 08:07 Exploring Consciousness and its Measurement 08:49 Dopamine Firing in Different Scenarios 11:41 Understanding the Complexity of Neurons 18:23 Exploring the Concept of Prediction Error 27:36 Understanding the Role of Dopamine in Depression 30:52 Understanding the Role of Serotonin and Dopamine 33:55 Exploring the Concept of Metacognition 43:28 Understanding the Development of Reward System in Humans 43:59 Understanding the Reward System in Infants 45:36 The Maturation of the Reward System 46:41 The Role of Neural Connections in Reward System 47:23 The Concept of Reward Sensitivity During Adolescence 48:44 The Importance of Exploration in Reward System 54:53 The Role of Dopamine in Reward System 01:02:41 Understanding Addiction and Dopamine's Role 01:02:45 The Impact of Modern Day Environment on Reward System 01:13:04 The Role of Risk in Assessing Subjective Reward Value 01:18:06 Understanding Individual Differences in Reward Sensitivity 01:20:14 The Never-Ending Journey of Incentive Reward #Neuroscience #Dopamine #RewardProcessing #BehavioralEconomics #Addiction #RiskTaking #NatureandNurture

Dr. Camilla Nord, a neuroscientist and leader of the Mental Health Neuroscience Lab at the University of Cambridge, discusses topics such as prediction error, neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin, the neuroscience of hallucinations and psychedelics, the gut microbiome's role in regulating mood, and the impact of social hierarchy on mental health and academics.

Dr. Rachel Marsh is the Irving Philips Professor of Medical Psychology in Child Psychology at Columbia University Medical Center, where she runs the Cognitive Development and Neuroimaging Lab. Dr. Marsh studies the neurodevelopment of self-regulatory control and its pathology in disorders such as OCD, eating disorders, and Tourette’s syndrome. More recently, she studies how maternal stress contributes to intergenerational transmission of regulatory deficits.

Dr. Walter Veit is a Lecturer in Philosophy at the University of Reading and author of A Philosophy for the Science of Animal Consciousness. He is an expert in philosophy of mind, cognitive and biological sciences, applied ethics, and animal welfare. In this episode, we talk about philosophy of mind and the evolution of consciousness in animals. Walter outlines his theory of the evolution of phenomenological complexity and affective experience in animals, its similarities and differences with computational theories of consciousness outlined by past podcast guests Kevin Mitchell and Mark Solms, and the diversity of consciousness ranging from humans, to other mammals, to octopuses and fish, to plant life and single cellular organisms. We discuss how animals’ capacity for experiencing pleasure and pain contribute to sentientist morality, whether human morality is anthropocentric, and how Walter’s research informs his views on animal welfare ethics.

Dr. Ellen Langer is a Professor of Psychology at Harvard University and one of the pioneers of the positive psychology movement, known as the Mother of Mindfulness. Dr. Langer has won numerous awards including 3 Distinguished Scientist Award, the Staats Award for Unifying Psychology, and the Liberty Science Genius Award. She is the author of 13 books on mindfulness, including 5 on mindfulness, most recently The Mindful Body.

Dr. Henning Tiemeier is a Professor of Social and Behavioral Science and the Sumner and Esther Feldberg Chair of Maternal and Child Health at the Harvard Chan School of Public Health. Dr. Tiemeier is an expert in pediatric epidemiology, focusing on prenatal exposures and the environmental determinants that influence brain development in children. In this episode, we talk about pros and cons of different hormone measurement techniques and their use in pediatric epidemiology, neuroscience, and psychology. We also discuss how different environmental stressors, such as socioeconomic status and pollutants, impact brain and cognitive development prenatally, in early childhood, and during puberty. Lastly, we discuss neuroplasticity, and how public health research can intervene to improve the health and cognitive outcomes of at-risk populations during sensitive periods of development.

Dr. Willem Frankenhuis, he's an Associate Professor of Evolutionary and Population Biology at the University of Amsterdam, a Senior Researcher at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Crime, Security, and Law, and Director of the Research Network on Communicating Strength-Based Approaches to Child Development and Learning in Adverse Conditions. He studies how cognition and behavior develop in harsh and unpredictable conditions.  The episode delves into what constitutes a typical human childhood, drawing on insights from the intersection of human development, evolutionary biology, and cultural anthropology.  We discuss 'hidden talents', abilities that adversity can enhance, and 'reasonable responses', behaviors that are adaptive strategies among individuals living in poverty. Dr. Frankenhuis also discusses his theoretical work involving mathematical modeling to study the evolution and development of plasticity – the ability to adjust development in response to different environmental conditions.

Dr. Lars Chittka is a Professor of Sensory and Behavioral Ecology and the founder of the Research Center for Psychology at Queen Mary University of London. He directs the Bee Sensory and Behavioral Ecology Lab, and is the author of The Mind of a Bee. In this episode, we discuss the results of decades of research on intelligence in bees and other insects. This includes findings of numerical and spatial cognition, memory, perception, and personality. Lars describes differences and similarities between bumblebees, wasps, and honeybees, why honeybees produce so much honey and die after stinging and mating, and more. We also discuss the evidence for bees having emotions, feeling, and consciousness, and efforts for the preservation and ethical handling of bees.

Dr. Jack Schultz is a Professor of Anthropology at Concordia University and an expert in the cultural anthropology of religion and sociology of knowledge.