Curiosity Weekly

Author Jen Sincero explains how changing your thoughts, beliefs, and words can help you stick to your goals and successfully form new habits. Plus, learn how ancient Puebloans survived in the desert badlands of New Mexico with help from secret underground ice reserves.How did ancestral Puebloans survive in the 'Badlands?' They had a secret ice reserve by Grant CurrinGeoscientists discover Ancestral Puebloans survived from ice melt in New Mexico lava tubes. (2020). EurekAlert! https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-11/uosf-gda111720.phpOnac, B. P., Baumann, S. M., Parmenter, D. S., Weaver, E., & Sava, T. B. (2020). Late Holocene droughts and cave ice harvesting by Ancestral Puebloans. Scientific Reports, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-76988-1Additional resources from author Jen SinceroPick up "Badass Habits: Cultivate the Awareness, Boundaries, and Daily Upgrades You Need to Make Them Stick" from Amazon: https://amzn.to/37l87kNWebsite: https://www.jensincero.com/Twitter: https://twitter.com/jensinceroInstagram: https://www.instagram.com/jensincero/Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/user/TheJenSinceroSubscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/what-most-people-miss-when-building-habits-w-jen-sincero Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about how social connection may be as basic of a human need as hunger; the ongoing scientific debate around how ice skating actually works; and the Uberman sleep cycle, a polyphasic sleep schedule that was allegedly used by Leonardo da Vinci and Nikola Tesla.Social connection may be a "basic human need" like hunger by Kelsey DonkPattillo, A. (2020, November 23). Loneliness and hunger light up brain activity in similar ways. Inverse; Inverse. https://www.inverse.com/mind-body/brain-study-social-connection-basic-human-needTomova, L., Wang, K. L., Thompson, T., Matthews, G. A., Takahashi, A., Tye, K. M., & Saxe, R. (2020). Acute social isolation evokes midbrain craving responses similar to hunger. Nature Neuroscience, 23(12), 1597–1605. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-020-00742-zThere Is Still Hot Debate Around How Ice Skating Actually Works by Joanie Faletto15 Surprising Facts About Figure Skating. (2016, November 15). Mentalfloss.com. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/88660/15-surprising-facts-about-figure-skatingIce cube experiment. (2014). Ice cube experiment. Abc.net.au. https://doi.org/http://abc.net.au/science/articles/2014/08/20/4067852.htmGilead Amit. (2020). Why is ice slippery? New Scientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg22730371-000-why-is-ice-slippery/staff, S. X. (2015, December 8). New theory describes ice’s slippery behavior. Phys.org; Phys.org. https://phys.org/news/2015-12-theory-ice-slippery-behavior.htmlPersson, B. N. J. (2015). Ice friction: Role of non-uniform frictional heating and ice premelting. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 143(22), 224701. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4936299Leonardo da Vinci and Nikola Tesla Allegedly Followed the Uberman Sleep Cycle originally aired August 9, 2018: https://omny.fm/shows/curiosity-daily/antimatter-101-w-everyday-einstein-how-to-avoid-bePick up Tim Ferriss’ “The 4-Hour Body: An Uncommon Guide to Rapid Fat-Loss, Incredible Sex, and Becoming Superhuman” on Amazon: https://amzn.to/395RWHtSubscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/we-still-dont-know-how-ice-skating-works Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about why you shouldn’t add oil to your pasta water; a simple way to help kids think better; and why your dog’s paws smell like corn chips.Here's Why You Shouldn't Add Oil to Your Pasta Water by Ashley HamerHelmenstein, A. M. (2019). Why Don’t Oil and Water Mix? ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/why-oil-and-water-dont-mix-609193Corriher, S. (2007, April 10). Cooking Pasta Properly. FineCooking; FineCooking. https://www.finecooking.com/article/cooking-pasta-properlyPantry Raid I: Use Your Noodle Transcript. (2010). Goodeatsfanpage.com. http://www.goodeatsfanpage.com/season1/pasta/pastatranscript.htmThis Reminder Brings Out Flexible Thinking in Kids by Alison JonesJones-Duke, A. (2019, July 5). This reminder brings out flexible thinking in kids. Futurity. https://www.futurity.org/reminders-children-roles-flexible-thinking-2099002-2/Gaither, S. E., Fan, S. P., & Kinzler, K. D. (2019). Thinking about multiple identities boosts children’s flexible thinking. Developmental Science, 23(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12871Here's why your dog's paws smell like corn chips by Grant CurrinReactions. (2020). Why Do My Dog’s Paws Smell Like Fritos? [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30_QRAC6XOU&feature=youtu.beDove, L.L. (2016, November 14). Why Your Dog’s Paws Smell Gloriously Like Corn Chips. HowStuffWorks. https://animals.howstuffworks.com/pets/why-dog-paws-smell-fritos-corn-chips.htmSoniak, M. (2010, July 12). Why Do Your Dog’s Feet Smell Like Popcorn? Mentalfloss.com. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/25030/why-do-your-dogs-feet-smell-popcornSubscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/why-your-dogs-paws-smell-like-corn-chips Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about how disgusting sights literally turn your stomach; and why tattoos are permanent. Then, play along at home as we test your podcast knowledge in this month’s edition of the Curiosity Challenge trivia game.Disgusting sights literally turn your stomach by Cameron DukeNord, C. L., Dalmaijer, E. S., Armstrong, T., Baker, K., & Dalgleish, T. (2020). A Causal Role for Gastric Rhythm in Human Disgust Avoidance. Current Biology. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2020.10.087Rhythm and bleughs: changes in our stomach’s rhythms steer us away from disgusting sights. (2020). EurekAlert! https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-11/uoc-rab112320.phpWhy are tattoos permanent? by Cameron DukeBaranska, A., Shawket, A., Jouve, M., Baratin, M., Malosse, C., Voluzan, O., Vu Manh, T.-P., Fiore, F., Bajénoff, M., Benaroch, P., Dalod, M., Malissen, M., Henri, S., & Malissen, B. (2018). Unveiling skin macrophage dynamics explains both tattoo persistence and strenuous removal. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 215(4), 1115–1133. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20171608How wounds heal: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. (2017). Medlineplus.gov. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/patientinstructions/000741.htmSpecktor, B. (2018, March 6). Tattoos Last Forever Because Your Immune Cells Are Hungry for Dead Skin. Livescience.com; Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/61932-why-tattoos-last.htmlEpisodes referenced in the Curiosity Challenge trivia game:Battery-powered airplanes: https://www.curiositydaily.com/why-dont-we-have-battery-powered-airplanes/Smacking electronics: https://www.curiositydaily.com/why-its-relaxing-to-breathe-in-through-your-nose/Cream in coffee: https://www.curiositydaily.com/why-you-need-self-compassion-for-self-improvement/Subscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/disgusting-sights-literally-turn-your-stomach Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about a new discovery about STEVE, the weird streak of color in the Canadian skies; how a “wind phone” in Otsuchi, Japan, helped thousands cope with grief after losing their loved ones; and why we judge others more harshly than we judge ourselves.There's a new discovery about STEVE, the weird aurora discovered by citizen scientists by Grant CurrinSTEVE may be even less like typical auroras than scientists thought. (2020, November 12). Science News. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/steve-light-sky-glow-atmosphere-different-typical-auroraSemeter, J., Hunnekuhl, M., MacDonald, E., Hirsch, M., Zeller, N., Chernenkoff, A., & Wang, J. (2020). The Mysterious Green Streaks Below STEVE. AGU Advances, 1(4). https://doi.org/10.1029/2020av000183A "Wind Phone" Consoles Disaster-Stricken Japan by Anna ToddJapan’s Wind Phone for Calling the Dead. (2017, April 11). Atlas Obscura. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/wind-telephoneBennett, K. M., Hughes, G. M., & Smith, P. T. (2005). Psychological Response to Later Life Widowhood: Coping and the Effects of Gender. OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying, 51(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.2190/9JPJ-1FM1-37NX-2DECBlair, G. J. (2020, February 21). Berlin Hidden Gem: “Voices in the Wind” Depicts a Sense of Connection in Japan. Hollywoodreporter.com. https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/berlin-hidden-gem-voices-wind-depicts-a-sense-connection-japan-1280211One Last Thing Before I Go (2016) - This American Life. (2016, September 23). This American Life. https://www.thisamericanlife.org/597/one-last-thing-before-i-go-2016We judge others more harshly than we judge ourselves originally aired May 2, 2018: https://omny.fm/shows/curiosity-daily/how-laundry-machines-work-bill-gates-recommended-rFundamental Attribution Error: Definition & Overview Video. (2020). Fundamental Attribution Error: Definition & Overview - Video & Lesson Transcript | Study.com. Study.com. https://study.com/academy/lesson/fundamental-attribution-error-definition-lesson-quiz.htmlSix Habits of Highly Empathic People. (2012). Greater Good. https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/six_habits_of_highly_empathic_people1Heath, D. (2010, June 9). The Fundamental Attribution Error: It’s the Situation, Not the Person. Fast Company; Fast Company. https://www.fastcompany.com/1657515/fundamental-attribution-error-its-situation-not-personOatley, K. (2016). Fiction: Simulation of Social Worlds. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(8), 618–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2016.06.002Subscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/a-new-discovery-about-that-weird-aurora-named-steve Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about the benefits of laughter yoga with the founder of the laughter club movement, Dr. Madan Kataria. You’ll also learn about a major breakthrough in the way scientists are searching for dark matter.This new dark-matter detection method is 10x more precise by Grant CurrinSeeing dark matter in a new light. (2020). EurekAlert! https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-11/ras-sdm110520.phpGurri, P., Taylor, E. N., & Fluke, C. J. (2020). The first shear measurements from precision weak lensing. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 499(4), 4591-4604. https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/499/4/4591/5909978Additional resources from Madan Kataria, M.D.Laughter Yoga International https://laughteryoga.org/Pick up “Laughter Yoga: Daily Practices for Health and Happiness” https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/616786/laughter-yoga-by-madan-kataria-md-foreword-by-andrew-weil-md/Follow Laughter Guru on Facebook https://www.facebook.com/laughterguruofficial/Subscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/beat-stress-with-laughter-yoga-w-madan-kataria-md Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about how the Faroe Islands created their own Google Street View using sheep; why some vaccines (like Pfizer’s and Moderna’s COVID-19 vaccines) have to be kept so cold; and why it’s easier to understand a second language than it is to speak it.The Faroe Islands Created Their Own Google Street View with Sheep by Anna ToddVisit Faroe Islands - The ultimate guide to the Faroe Islands. (2016). Visit Faroe Islands. https://visitfaroeislands.com/Lockhart, K. (2016, August 31). Google Sheep View: Tech giant to map out Faroe Islands using sheep, ships and wheelbarrows. The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/08/31/google-sheep-view-tech-giant-agrees-to-help-to-map-out-faroe-isl/Google Street View on the Faroe Islands: https://goo.gl/maps/tA7359hiqbRd8uGfAWhy do some vaccines have to be kept so cold? by Cameron DukeHow Influenza (Flu) Vaccines Are Made. (2020). https://www.cdc.gov/flu/prevent/how-fluvaccine-made.htmModerna Announces Longer Shelf Life for its COVID-19 Vaccine Candidate at Refrigerated Temperatures | Moderna, Inc. (2020). Moderna, Inc. https://investors.modernatx.com/news-releases/news-release-details/moderna-announces-longer-shelf-life-its-covid-19-vaccineRNA vaccines: an introduction. (2018). PHG Foundation. https://www.phgfoundation.org/briefing/rna-vaccinesWhy Does Pfizer’s COVID-19 Vaccine Need To Be Kept Colder Than Antarctica? (2020, November 17). NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2020/11/17/935563377/why-does-pfizers-covid-19-vaccine-need-to-be-kept-colder-than-antarcticaScientists may have discovered why it's easier to understand a second language than speak it by Kelsey DonkLearning a new language changes the brain’s division of labor. (2020). EurekAlert! https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-11/sfn-lan111720.phpGurunandan, K., Arnaez-Telleria, J., Carreiras, M., & Paz-Alonso, P. M. (2020). Converging evidence for differential specialisation and plasticity of language systems. The Journal of Neuroscience, JN-RM-0851-20. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.0851-20.2020Subscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/why-are-the-covid-19-vaccines-kept-so-cold Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about why you can have an emotional reaction to music even when it’s not being played; how people have been performing brain surgery for thousands of years; and why some bathroom light switches are outside the room.People can have emotional reactions to music even when it's not being played by Kelsey DonkEmotional responses to music - without a sound – News. (2020, November 18). News. https://news.flinders.edu.au/blog/2020/11/19/emotional-responses-to-music-without-a-sound/Parletta, N. (2020, November 18). Music without a sound. Cosmos Magazine. https://cosmosmagazine.com/people/behaviour/music-without-a-sound/Susino, M., & Schubert, E. (2020). Musical emotions in the absence of music: A cross-cultural investigation of emotion communication in music by extra-musical cues. PLOS ONE, 15(11), e0241196. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241196People Have Been Performing Brain Surgery for Thousands of Years by Reuben WestmaasNuwer, R. (2013, December 20). 1,000 Years Ago, Patients Survived Brain Surgery, But They Had To Live With Huge Holes in Their Heads. Smithsonian Magazine; Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/1000-years-ago-patients-survived-brain-surgery-but-they-had-live-with-huge-holes-in-their-heads-180948185/Way, L. (2020, May 18). Craniotomy Through the Ages: We’ve Come a Long Way - Neurosurgical Associates of Central Jersey. Neurosurgical Associates of Central Jersey. https://neurosurgerycnj.com/craniotomy-through-the-ages-weve-come-a-long-way/Ancient cranial surgery. (2013, December 19). EurekAlert! https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2013-12/uoc--acs121913.phpDengler, R. (2018, April 19). Prehistoric humans may have practiced brain surgery on cows. Science | AAAS. https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/04/prehistoric-humans-may-have-practiced-brain-surgery-cowsKushner, D. S., Verano, J. W., & Titelbaum, A. R. (2018). Trepanation Procedures/Outcomes: Comparison of Prehistoric Peru with Other Ancient, Medieval, and American Civil War Cranial Surgery. World Neurosurgery, 114, 245–251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2018.03.143Why Are Some Bathroom Light Switches Outside of the Room? by Ashley HamerPower and Water Do Not Mix | Prairie Electric. (2013, April 17). Prairie Electric. https://www.prairielectric.com/blog/power-and-water-do-not-mix/Section 701 - Locations containing a bath or shower. (Winter 2014) Wiring Matters. The Institution of Engineering and Technology. https://electrical.theiet.org/media/1084/2014_53_winter_wiring_matters.pdfThiele, T. (2017). What Are the National Electrical Codes for Bathrooms? The Spruce. https://www.thespruce.com/national-electrical-codes-for-bathrooms-1152275Subscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/people-respond-to-music-even-when-they-cant-hear-it Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about how your brain treats beautiful faces differently from beautiful objects; why the town of Baarle sits on one of the world’s most complex international borders; and what might happen if you’re eating during a car accident.Your brain treats beautiful faces differently from beautiful objects by Kelsey DonkOur Brains Have Two Distinct “Beauty Centres”: One For Art And One For Faces. (2020, November 11). Research Digest; Research Digest. https://digest.bps.org.uk/2020/11/11/our-brains-have-two-distinct-beauty-centres-one-for-art-and-one-for-faces/Chuan-Peng, Hu, et al. "Seeking the “Beauty Center” in the Brain: A Meta-Analysis of fMRI Studies of Beautiful Human Faces and Visual Art." Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience (2020): 1-16. https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13415-020-00827-zThe Town of Baarle Sits on One of the World's Most Complex International Borders by Ashley GabrielKaid Benfield. (2012, February 17). The Most Complicated Border Town in the World. CityLab; CityLab. https://web.archive.org/web/20171215175448/https://www.citylab.com/equity/2012/02/most-complicated-border-town-world/1267/Great Big Story. (2018). The Town In Two Countries [YouTube Video]. In YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pP4OL2i6t-QEating during a car crash by Ashley Hamer (Listener question from Stephen)Lundy, D. W., & Lourie, G. M. (1998). Two open forearm fractures after airbag deployment during low speed accidents. Clinical orthopaedics and related research, (351), 191-195. https://europepmc.org/article/med/9646762CONTENT NOTE: GRUESOME IMAGE. Ronnie, D., Emecheta, I. E., & Kevin, H. (2011). Missile launch pad: an unusual consequence of airbag deployment. Case Reports, 2011(feb17 1), bcr1120103522–bcr1120103522. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr.11.2010.3522Wil Fulton. (2017, September 19). Why Eating While Driving Should Be Illegal. Thrillist; Thrillist. https://www.thrillist.com/eat/nation/distracted-driving-eatingEating While Driving - DecidetoDrive. (2014). DecidetoDrive. https://www.decidetodrive.org/distracted-driving-dangerous/eating-driving/3 Dangerous Activities You Might Do While Driving | Lytx. (2014). Lytx.com. https://www.lytx.com/en-us/news-events/press-release/2014/lytx-data-finds-three-dangerous-activities-you-maySubscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/your-brain-treats-human-beauty-differently-from-artistic-beauty Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Learn about why Wolf-Rayet stars are the brightest stars in the sky; why immune cells in your brain may have started out in your gut; and the history of why we can thank Grace Hopper for calling computer glitches “bugs.”Wolf-Rayet Stars Are Ridiculously Hot, Bright, and Massive by Ashley HamerHowell, E. (2018, October 24). Sirius: Brightest Star in Earth’s Night Sky. Space.com; Space. https://www.space.com/21702-sirius-brightest-star.htmlNASA - Top Story: Wolf-Rayet stars have company. (2020). Nasa.gov. https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2004/0105wrstar.htmlCrockett, C. (2012). Wolf-Rayets are the most massive and brightest stars known | EarthSky.org. Earthsky.org. https://earthsky.org/space/wolf-rayets-are-the-most-massive-and-brightest-stars-knownWhat Is A Wolf-Rayet Star? - Universe Today. (2015, February 5). Universe Today. https://www.universetoday.com/24736/wolf-rayet-star/Massive black hole found devouring star - Futurity. (2010, January 27). Futurity. https://www.futurity.org/massive-black-hole-found-devouring-star/Immune cells that protect the brain get their training in the gut by Grant CurrinThe gut trains the immune system to protect the brain. (2020). EurekAlert! https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2020-11/nion-tgt110220.phpFitzpatrick, Zachary, et al. (2020). Gut-educated IgA plasma cells defend the meningeal venous sinuses. Nature: 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2886-4Why glitches are called "bugs" by Mae RiceOriginal episode: https://omny.fm/shows/curiosity-daily/contagious-yawning-conformal-cyclic-cosmology-exerSubscribe to Curiosity Daily to learn something new every day with Cody Gough and Ashley Hamer. You can also listen to our podcast as part of your Alexa Flash Briefing; Amazon smart speakers users, click/tap “enable” here: https://www.amazon.com/Curiosity-com-Curiosity-Daily-from/dp/B07CP17DJY Find episode transcript here: https://curiosity-daily-4e53644e.simplecast.com/episodes/why-we-call-computer-glitches-bugs Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.