The Threshold of Civilization

Civilization is a complex development marked by the emergence of cities, social hierarchies, writing, and the state. However, its definition and significance differ across time and place. The rise of civilization was not a linear progression, and some societies thrived without meeting the traditional criteria. The belief in a straightforward march of progress is flawed, as different regions experienced distinct paths to complexity and social organization. The material record, complemented by written sources, offers valuable insights into prehistoric societies. Writing, though important, is not a direct window into the past and should be evaluated in context. Mesopotamia and Egypt exemplify lasting civilizations with influential cultural legacies, but it is crucial not to overlook the lives of ordinary people during this period.