How to Build Fault-Tolerant Quantum Computers | Austin Fowler on Surface Codes + TQEC

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Dec 9, 2025

Austin Fowler, a pioneer in quantum error correction and former principal architect at Google Quantum AI, discusses the future of quantum computing. He argues that open-source collaboration, akin to CERN, can hasten advancements. Fowler highlights the need for millions of reliable qubits and critiques current funding models that may hamper progress. He also explores the challenges of superconducting qubits and emphasizes the importance of high-quality compilers and AI in quantum software development. A fascinating look at the dynamics of quantum technology!

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INSIGHT

Quantum Is A Multi-Decade Endeavor

Building a useful quantum computer is a decades-long marathon, not a quick sprint.
We currently have ~100 qubits but will likely need tens of thousands to a million for practical tasks.

INSIGHT

Architecture Drives Qubit Requirements

Required qubit counts vary by architecture and interaction range, maybe 10k–1M.
Gate fidelity and connectivity heavily determine which codes and compression techniques will work.

INSIGHT

Surface Code As A Practical Baseline

The surface code dominates for 2D nearest-neighbor hardware because it has high threshold and simple local circuits.
Without a baseline compiler to quantify overheads you can't fairly compare alternative codes.

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Would we get a quantum computer sooner if everything was open source?

In this episode, we speak with Austin Fowler, one of the architects of quantum error correction and a pioneer of the surface code used in today’s leading quantum computers. Fowler helped lay the groundwork for scalable, fault-tolerant computation at Google Quantum AI, before leaving to advocate for a more open and collaborative model of research.

He explains why building a useful quantum computer will require millions of reliable qubits, why no known algorithm yet clearly outperforms classical computation, and why the field’s current competitive funding model may be slowing progress instead of accelerating it. From the engineering challenges of superconducting qubits to the economics of global research, Fowler offers a candid, inside look at the state of quantum technology.

We explore the history and promise of quantum error correction, the software bottlenecks that still stand in the way, and how an open-source, international approach — modeled on CERN or the International Space Station — could transform the field. Along the way, Fowler reflects on his time at Google, the importance of collaboration, and what it will really take to make quantum computing practical.

Whether you’re interested in quantum hardware, physics, computer science, or research policy, this conversation reveals the technical, ethical, and economic realities behind one of today’s most ambitious scientific pursuits.

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Timestamps:
00:00 - Intro
01:40 - Austin’s Longevity in Quantum
02:31 - What’s the Goal of Quantum Computing?
05:01 - Creating Fault-Tolerant Qubits
06:55 - Advantages of 2D Surface Code
08:47 - Austin’s Journey into Quantum
16:32 - Working at Google
20:14 - Alternatives to Surface Codes
22:18 - Should Quantum Computing Be Open Source?
25:20 - Quantum Computing is Eating Itself
30:52 - Open Source as a Mission
35:46 - Advice for People Getting into TQEC
39:03 - Bit Flips vs Phase Flips
45:43 - History of Surface Codes
49:05 - From Surface Code to Fault Tolerance
57:19 - What Software do Quantum Computers Need?
1:00:17 - Quantum vs Classical Error Correction
1:05:57 - Manufacturing Superconducting Qubits
1:12:02 - Noise Models in Software
1:21:21 - How do NISQ Experiments help us Build Better Computers?
1:24:01 - State of the Art Topological QEC
1:31:38 - How did the TQEC Community Begin?
1:34:46 - Future of TQEC
1:36:03 - Quantum AI
1:37:58 - Advice for Young Scientists
1:41:35 - Underrated Quantum Research
1:47:21 - What are the Most Important Upcoming Developments?