AC Grayling on philosophy and life

The Histories by Herodotus is a foundational work in Western historical literature. It chronicles the Greco-Persian Wars (499–479 BCE) and provides a comprehensive background on the rise and organization of the Persian Empire. The work is divided into nine books, each named after one of the Muses. Herodotus describes the conflicts between the Greeks and Persians, including key battles such as Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, Plataea, and Mycale. He also delves into the cultural, ethnographical, geographical, and historiographical aspects of the civilizations involved, offering a rich tapestry of historical and mythological narratives. Despite some criticisms for including legendary accounts, much of Herodotus's work has been validated by modern historians and archaeologists.

In this work, Sartre argues that existentialism is an optimistic and action-oriented philosophy that centers on moral responsibility and human interconnections. He posits that 'existence precedes essence,' meaning humans are not defined by a pre-existing essence but by their choices and actions. Sartre addresses criticisms of existentialism, arguing that it is not pessimistic but rather liberating, as it grounds human values and moral aims in human subjectivity itself. He differentiates his existential humanism from other forms of humanism, emphasizing that humans are constantly in the process of creating their own values and purposes without relying on divine or external mandates.

Meditations is a series of private writings composed by Marcus Aurelius, one of Rome's greatest emperors, as he struggled to understand himself and make sense of the universe. Written between 170 and 180 CE while on military campaigns, this work combines Stoic philosophy with personal observations on leadership, duty, mortality, and human nature. Through twelve books of intimate thoughts never intended for publication, Marcus Aurelius explores themes of self-improvement, resilience in the face of adversity, and living virtuously while accepting what cannot be changed.

In 'Life, the Universe and Everything', Arthur Dent and his companions find themselves on a series of bizarre adventures through time and space. The story involves their attempts to find the Ultimate Question to the Ultimate Answer of Life, the Universe, and Everything, and their encounters with various eccentric characters, including an immortal alien intent on insulting every living creature in the universe. The book is known for its witty humor and creative plot twists, bringing closure to some of the unanswered questions from the earlier novels in the series.

In 'The Myth of Sisyphus', Albert Camus delves into the concept of the absurd, which arises from the conflict between humanity's desire for meaning and the apparent indifference of the universe. Camus argues that this absurdity does not justify suicide but rather requires a revolt against it. He introduces Sisyphus, a figure from Greek mythology condemned to eternally push a boulder up a mountain only for it to roll back down, as the ideal absurd hero. Camus suggests that Sisyphus's acceptance of his fate and his continued effort to push the boulder up the mountain, despite its futility, exemplify the human condition and the possibility of finding happiness in the face of absurdity. The essay also discusses other examples of absurd lives and includes an appendix on the works of Franz Kafka.

Plato's "Meno" is a philosophical dialogue exploring the nature of knowledge and virtue. The dialogue features Socrates' discussion with Meno, a young man who questions whether virtue can be taught. Socrates employs his famous method of questioning to challenge Meno's assumptions and to explore the possibility of innate knowledge. The dialogue introduces the theory of anamnesis, suggesting that learning is a process of recollecting pre-existing knowledge. "Meno" is a significant work in the history of philosophy, raising fundamental questions about epistemology and ethics. It continues to be studied and debated for its insights into the nature of knowledge and the human condition.