103 - The Immortal Cato

This work, also known as 'Bellum Catilinae' or 'De coniuratione Catilinae', is Sallust's first historical monograph. It narrates the career of Catiline, his political ambitions, and the detection and suppression of the Catilinarian conspiracy. The monograph begins with a preface on the nature of man and history, followed by a character description of Catiline and the events leading to his rebellion. Sallust critiques the moral and social decadence of the Roman ruling classes throughout the narrative.

Written in 44 BC, 'De Officiis' is a treatise by Marcus Tullius Cicero that explores the best way to live, behave, and observe moral obligations. The work is divided into three books: the first discusses what is honorable, the second what is to one's advantage, and the third how to resolve conflicts between honor and expediency. Cicero emphasizes the importance of the four cardinal virtues - wisdom, justice, courage, and temperance - and argues that true virtue can never be in conflict with private advantage. The treatise is written in the form of a letter to his son Cicero Minor and reflects Cicero's Stoic influences, particularly from the philosopher Panaetius.

This treatise is composed of three dialogues, each addressing one of the prominent ethical systems of the era. The first dialogue (Books I and II) presents and critiques Epicureanism, the second (Books III and IV) discusses and critiques Stoicism, and the third (Books V) examines the Academic school. Cicero uses these dialogues to present the theories of each school and then critiques them, highlighting their strengths and weaknesses. The work is significant for its comprehensive overview of ancient ethical thought and its method of presenting philosophical debates through dialogue.

Appian's 'Roman History' is a comprehensive historical work that covers various peoples and countries from the earliest times until their incorporation into the Roman Empire. The surviving books include detailed accounts of the Spanish, Hannibalic, Punic, Illyrian, Syrian, and Mithridatic wars, as well as the Roman civil wars. The work is valuable for its ethnographic structure and its preservation of earlier historical sources, despite some criticisms of accuracy and creative use of sources.

Lucan's 'Civil War' is an unfinished epic poem that delves into the tumultuous period of the Roman Republic's descent into civil strife. The narrative centers around the conflict between Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great, highlighting the political machinations, military ambitions, and the eventual crossing of the Rubicon River by Caesar, which symbolized the irrevocable decision to engage in civil war. The poem explores themes of power, loyalty, and destiny, and it vividly portrays the battles, sieges, and the human cost of the war. It also reflects on the moral and philosophical implications of the conflict, marking the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.

Written in Ancient Greek, 'Roman History' by Cassius Dio spans 80 volumes, although many have survived only in fragments or through later summaries by authors such as Zonaras and John Xiphilinus. The work covers the founding of Rome, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire up until the reign of Alexander Severus. Dio's official duties and extensive research make his work a vital source for Roman history, particularly for the late Republic and early Empire periods.

Written by Joseph Addison in 1712 and first performed in 1713, 'Cato, a Tragedy' is a play that dramatizes the final days of Cato the Younger, a Stoic who resisted the tyranny of Julius Caesar. The play delves into themes such as individual liberty versus government tyranny, republicanism versus monarchism, and the personal struggle to maintain one's beliefs in the face of death. It features a prologue by Alexander Pope and an epilogue by Samuel Garth. The play was highly influential, especially in the American colonies, and is considered a literary inspiration for the American Revolution. It highlights the conflict between virtue and passion, with Cato's unwavering commitment to liberty and republicanism serving as a central theme.

Montaigne's *Essays* are a seminal work that introduced the essay as a literary form. The book is a personal and introspective exploration of various subjects, including the human condition, skepticism, and the importance of concrete experience over abstract learning. Montaigne's skepticism is reflected in the title *Essais*, meaning 'Attempts' or 'Tests', indicating a project of trial and error and tentative exploration. The essays cover topics such as the education of children, the role of the body, illness, aging, and death. Montaigne's writing style is characterized by multiple digressions, anecdotes from ancient and contemporary sources, and quotations that reinforce his critical analysis of reality.

Written between 413-426 CE, 'The City of God' is a response to pagan claims that the sack of Rome by barbarians was a consequence of the abolition of pagan worship by Christian emperors. Augustine argues that Christianity saved the city from complete destruction and that Rome’s fall was due to internal moral decay. The book divides humanity into two metaphorical cities: the City of God, characterized by devotion to God, and the City of Man, characterized by self-love. It also outlines Augustine’s theological interpretation of human history, from the Creation to the Second Coming of Christ, and critiques paganism and pagan philosophy while presenting the true history of the City of God.

This biography by Plutarch is one of his longer works and provides a detailed account of Cato the Younger's life. It covers his childhood, his adherence to Stoic philosophy, his military service, and his political career. The work highlights Cato's inflexible and principled nature, his commitment to justice and simplicity, and his significant role in Roman politics during a period of great turmoil. The biography also includes anecdotes about Cato's personal life, his relationships, and his interactions with other notable figures of the time.

The Aeneid, written by Virgil between 29 and 19 BC, is a monumental work of classical literature. It follows the journey of Aeneas, a Trojan hero, as he navigates from the ruins of Troy to Italy, where he is destined to found the city of Lavinium, a precursor to Rome. The poem is divided into 12 books, with the first six detailing Aeneas' wanderings and the second six describing the war in Italy against the Latins. The epic incorporates various legends and mythological elements, glorifying traditional Roman virtues and legitimizing the Julio-Claudian dynasty. It explores themes such as duty, fate, and the relationship between the individual and society, and has had a profound influence on Western literature.