Menger's Barter Theory of the Origin of Money Is Still Standing

Human Action is Ludwig von Mises' magnum opus, where he defends an a priori foundation for praxeology and methodological individualism. The book argues that the free-market economy outdistances any government-planned system and serves as the foundation of civilization. Mises explains complex market phenomena as the outcomes of countless conscious, purposive actions and choices of individuals. He critiques government attempts to regulate and control economic activities, emphasizing the futility and counter-productiveness of such interventions. The book is a systematic treatment of the whole body of social and economic relations, integrating various economic problems into a comprehensive system.

Published in 1776, this book is a comprehensive study of political economy that challenges the mercantilist views of the time. It argues that a nation's wealth is not measured by its gold and silver reserves but by the stream of goods and services it produces. Smith introduces the concept of the 'invisible hand,' which describes how individual self-interest leads to societal benefit through free markets. The book also discusses the division of labor, capital accumulation, and the role of government in economic development, advocating for limited government intervention and the promotion of free trade and competition.

In 'Politics,' Aristotle examines the various forms of government and their strengths and weaknesses. He argues that the *polis*, or city-state, is the highest form of political association, and that humans are by nature political animals who can only achieve their full potential within such a community. Aristotle discusses different types of constitutions, including constitutional government, aristocracy, kingship, democracy, oligarchy, and tyranny, and evaluates them based on the principle of distributive justice. He also emphasizes the importance of a strong middle class, education, and the role of law in maintaining a stable and just society. The work is deeply rooted in Aristotle's teleological view of nature and his belief that the ultimate goal of human existence is happiness achieved through the exercise of reason and virtue.

In this book, David Graeber argues that debt has a much longer history than money and that it has played a central role in shaping human societies. He debunks the myth of barter as the precursor to money, instead proposing that credit systems and debt were the primary means of trade. Graeber examines how debt has been used as a tool for social control, influenced law, religion, and politics, and has led to periodic crises and debtor revolts throughout history. The book also discusses the moral and social implications of debt, suggesting that the concept of debt is more complex than a simple economic transaction.