The Different Responses to the Challenges of Science and Philosophy

Modern science had abundant determinism and any belief in unshakable knowledge. The core of what had been considered among Muslim philosophers over centuries as the first and most noble part of philosophy seemed to have lost its meaning. There were roughly speaking, I would say, three main ways of reacting to this immense challenge. Some schools successfully sealed themselves off from European influences; others still teach traditional deterministic philosophies. Third approach was incorporating new ideas into the traditional religious framework.