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How to Spot Scientific Disadvantage
A 2016 study titled linguistic obfuscation in fraudulent science looked at the archives of PubMed, a database of life and sciences journals from 1973 to 2013 for retracted papers. Their hypothesis was that scientists know they're committing misconduct and they skirt around their findings using language. Looking at the kinds of language they use can differentiate a scammy paper from a legit one. They identified 253 primarily from biomedical journals and compared them to unretracted papers from the same journals covering the same topics.